Women In The Economy Essay Research Paper

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Womans In The Economy Essay, Research Paper

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Throughout most of history adult females by and large have had fewer legal rights and calling chances than work forces. Wifehood and maternity were regarded as adult females & # 8217 ; s most important professions. In the twentieth century, nevertheless, adult females in most states won the right to vote and increased their educational and occupation chances. Possibly most of import, they fought for and to a big grade accomplished a reevaluation of traditional positions of their function in society.

Early on Attitudes Toward Women

Since early times adult females have been unambiguously viewed as a originative beginning of human life. Historically, nevertheless, they have been considered non merely intellectually inferior to work forces but besides a major beginning of enticement and immorality. In Grecian mythology, for illustration, it was a adult female, Pandora, who opened the out box and brought pestilences and sadness to mankind. Early Roman jurisprudence described adult females as kids, everlastingly inferior to work forces.

Early Christian divinity perpetuated these positions. St. Jerome, a 4th-century Latin male parent of the Christian church, said: & # 8220 ; Woman is the gate of the Satan, the way of evil, the sting of the snake, in a word a parlous object. & # 8221 ; Thomas Aquinas, the 13th-century Christian theologist, said that adult female was & # 8220 ; created to be adult male & # 8217 ; s helpmate, but her alone function is in construct. . . since for other intents work forces would be better assisted by other men. & # 8221 ;

The attitude toward adult females in the East was at foremost more favourable. In ancient India, for illustration, adult females were non deprived of belongings rights or single freedoms by matrimony. But Hinduism, which evolved in India after approximately 500 BC, required obeisance of adult females toward work forces. Womans had to walk behind their hubbies. Womans could non have belongings, and widows could non remarry. In both East and West, male kids were preferred over female kids.

However, when they were allowed personal and rational freedom, adult females made important accomplishments. During the Middle Ages nuns played a cardinal function in the spiritual life of Europe. Aristocratic adult females enjoyed power and prestigiousness. Whole epochs were influenced by adult females swayers for case, Queen Elizabeth of England in the sixteenth century, Catherine the Great of Russia in the eighteenth century, and Queen Victoria of England in the nineteenth century.

The Weaker Sex?

Womans were long considered of course weaker than work forces, squeamish, and unable to execute work necessitating muscular or rational development. In most preindustrial societies, for illustration, domestic jobs were relegated to adult females, go forthing & # 8220 ; heavier & # 8221 ; labour such as hunting and ploughing to work forces. This ignored the fact that caring for kids and making such undertakings as milking cattles and rinsing apparels besides required heavy, sustained labour. But physiological trials now suggest that adult females have a greater tolerance for hurting, and statistics reveal that adult females live longer and are more immune to many diseases.

Maternity, the natural biological function of adult females, has traditionally been regarded as their major societal function every bit good. The ensuing stereotype that & # 8220 ; a adult female & # 8217 ; s topographic point is in the place & # 8221 ; has mostly determined the ways in which adult females have expressed themselves. Today, contraceptive method and, in some countries, legalized abortion hold given adult females greater control over the figure of kids they will bear. Although these developments have freed adult females for functions other than maternity, the cultural force per unit area for adult females to go married womans and female parents still prevents many gifted adult females from completing college or prosecuting callings.

Traditionally a middle-class miss in Western civilization tended to larn from her female parent & # 8217 ; s illustration that cookery, cleansing, and caring for kids was the behaviour expected of her when she grew up. Trials made in the 1960s showed that the scholastic accomplishment of misss was higher in the early classs than in high school. The major ground given was that the misss & # 8217 ; ain outlooks declined because neither their households nor their instructors expected them to fix for a hereafter other than that of matrimony and maternity. This tendency has been altering in recent decennaries.

Formal instruction for misss historically has been secondary to that for male childs. In colonial America misss learned to read and compose at doll schools. They could go to the maestro & # 8217 ; s schools for male childs when there was room, normally during the summer when most of the male childs were working. By the terminal of the nineteenth century, nevertheless, the figure of adult females pupils had increased greatly. Higher instruction peculiarly was broadened by the rise of adult females & # 8217 ; s colleges and the admittance of adult females to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of resident college and university pupils were adult females. By 1900 the proportion had increased to more than one tierce.

Womans obtained 19 per centum of all undergraduate college grades around the beginning of the twentieth century. By 1984 the figure had aggressively increased to 49 per centum. Women besides increased their Numberss in alumnus survey. By the mid-1980s adult females were gaining 49 per centum of all maestro & # 8217 ; s grades and about 33 per centum of all doctorial grades. In 1985 about 53 per centum of all college pupils were adult females, more than one one-fourth of whom were supra age 29.

The Legal Status of Women

The myth of the natural lower status of adult females greatly influenced the position of adult females in jurisprudence. Under the common jurisprudence of England, an single adult female could have belongings, do a contract, or Sue and be sued. But a married adult female, defined as being one with her hubby, gave up her name, and virtually all her belongings came under her hubby & # 8217 ; s control.

During the early history of the United States, a adult male virtually owned his married woman and kids as he did his stuff ownerships. If a hapless adult male chose to direct his kids to the poorhouse, the female parent was lawfully defenceless to object. Some communities, nevertheless, modified the common jurisprudence to let adult females to move as attorneies in the tribunals, to action for belongings, and to have belongings in their ain names if their hubbies agreed.

Equity jurisprudence, which developed in England, emphasized the rule of equal rights instead than tradition. Equity jurisprudence had a liberalizing consequence upon the legal rights of adult females in the United States. For case, a adult female could action her hubby. Mississippi in 1839, followed by New York in 1848 and Massachusetts in 1854, passed Torahs leting married adult females to ain belongings offprint from their hubbies. In divorce jurisprudence, nevertheless, by and large the divorced hubby kept legal control of both kids and belongings.

In the nineteenth century, adult females began working outside their places in big Numberss, notably in fabric Millss and garment stores. In ill ventilated, crowded suites adult females ( and kids ) worked for every bit long as 12 hours a twenty-four hours. Great Britain passed a ten-hour-day jurisprudence for adult females and kids in 1847, but in the United States it was non until the 1910s that the provinces began to go through statute law restricting working hours and bettering working conditions of adult females and kids.

Finally, nevertheless, some of these labour Torahs were seen as curtailing the rights of working adult females. For case, Torahs forbiding adult females from working more than an eight-hour twenty-four hours or from working at dark efficaciously prevented adult females from keeping many occupations, peculiarly supervisory places, that might necessitate overtime work. Laws in some provinces prohibited adult females from raising weights above a certain sum changing from every bit small as 15 lbs ( 7 kgs ) once more excluding adult females from many occupations.

During the 1960s several federal Torahs bettering the economic position of adult females were passed. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 needed equal rewards for work forces and adult females making equal work. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbidden favoritism against adult females by any company with 25 or more employees. A Presidential Executive Order in 1967 prohibited prejudice against adult females in hiring by federal authorities contractors.

But favoritism in other Fieldss persisted. Many retail shops would non publish independent recognition cards to married adult females. Divorced or individual adult females frequently found it hard to obtain recognition to buy a house or a auto. Laws concerned with public assistance, offense, harlotry, and abortion besides displayed a prejudice against adult females. In possible misdemeanor of a adult female & # 8217 ; s right to privacy, for illustration, a female parent having authorities public assistance payments was capable to frequent probes in order to verify her public assistance claim. Sexual activity favoritism in the definition of offenses existed in some countries of the United States. A adult female who shot and killed her hubby would be accused of homicide, but the shot of a married woman by her hubby could be termed a & # 8220 ; passion shooting. & # 8221 ; Merely in 1968, for another illustration, did the Pennsylvania tribunals void a province jurisprudence which required that any adult female convicted of a felony be sentenced to the maximal penalty prescribed by jurisprudence. Often adult females cocottes were prosecuted although their male clients were allowed to travel free. In most provinces abortion was legal merely if the female parent & # 8217 ; s life was judged to be physically endangered. In 1973, nevertheless, the United States Supreme Court ruled that provinces could non curtail a adult female & # 8217 ; s right to an abortion in her first three months of gestation.

Until good into the twentieth century, adult females in Western European states lived under many of the same legal disablements as adult females in the United States. For illustration, until 1935, married adult females in England did non hold the full right to have belongings and to come in into contracts on a par with single adult females. Merely after 1920 was statute law passed to supply working adult females with employment chances and pay equal to work forces. Not until the early 1960s was a jurisprudence passed that equalized wage graduated tables for work forces and adult females in the British civil service.

Womans at Work

In colonial America, adult females who earned their ain life normally became dressmakers or maintain boarding houses. But some adult females worked in professions and occupations available largely to work forces. There were adult females physicians, attorneies, sermonizers, instructors, authors, and vocalists. By the early nineteenth century, nevertheless, acceptable businesss for working adult females were limited to factory labour or domestic work. Womans were excluded from the professions, except for authorship and instruction.

The medical profession is an illustration of changed attitudes in the 19th and twentieth centuries about what was regarded as suited work for adult females. Prior to the 1800s there were about no medical schools, and virtually any enterprising individual could pattern medicate. Indeed, OBs was the sphere of adult females.

Get downing in the nineteenth century, the needed educational readying, peculiarly for the pattern of medical specialty, increased. This tended to forestall many immature adult females, who married early and bore many kids, from come ining professional callings. Although place nursing was considered a proper female business, nursing in infirmaries was done about entirely by work forces. Specific favoritism against adult females besides began to look. For illustration, the American Medical Association, founded in 1846, barred adult females from rank. Barred besides from go toing & # 8220 ; work forces & # 8217 ; s & # 8221 ; medical colleges, adult females enrolled in their ain for case, the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, which was established in 1850. By the 1910s, nevertheless, adult females were go toing many taking medical schools, and in 1915 the American Medical Association began to acknowledge adult females members.

In 1890, adult females constituted about 5 per centum of the entire physicians in the United States. During the 1980s the proportion was about 17 per centum. At the same clip the per centum of adult females physicians was about 19 per centum in West Germany and 20 per centum in France. In Israel, nevertheless, about 32 per centum of the entire figure of physicians and tooth doctors were adult females.

Women besides had non greatly improved their position in other professions. In 1930 about 2 per centum of all American attorneies and Judgess were adult females in 1989, approximately 22 per centum. In 1930 there were about no adult females applied scientists in the United States. In 1989 the proportion of adult females applied scientists was merely 7.5 per centum.

In contrast, the learning profession was a big field of employment for adult females. In the late eightiess more than twice as many adult females as work forces taught in simple and high schools. In higher instruction, nevertheless, adult females held merely approximately one tierce of the instruction places, concentrated in such Fieldss as instruction, societal service, place economic sciences, nursing, and library scientific discipline. A little proportion of adult females college and university instructors were in the physical scientific disciplines, technology, agribusiness, and jurisprudence.

The great bulk of adult females who work are still employed in clerical places, mill work, retail gross revenues, and service occupations. Secretaries, bookkeepers, and typists account for a big part of adult females clerical workers. Womans in mills frequently work every bit machine operators, assembly programs, and inspectors. Many adult females in service occupations work as waitresses, cooks, infirmary attenders, cleaning adult females, and hairstylists.

During wartime adult females have served in the armed forces. In the United States during World War II about 300,000 adult females served in the Army and Navy, executing such noncombatant occupations as secretaries, typists, and nurses. Many European adult females fought in the belowground opposition motions during World War II. In Israel adult females are drafted into the armed forces along with work forces and receive combat preparation.

Womans constituted more than 45 per centum of employed individuals in the United States in 1989, but they had merely a little portion of the decision-making occupations. Although the figure of adult females working as directors, functionaries, and other decision makers has been increasing, in 1989 they were outnumbered approximately 1.5 to 1 by work forces. Despite the Equal Pay Act of 1963, adult females in 1970 were paid about 45 per centum less than work forces for the same occupations ; in 1988, approximately 32 perce

nt less. Professional adult females did non acquire the of import assignments and publicities given to their male co-workers. Many instances before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in 1970 were registered by adult females bear downing sex favoritism in occupations.

Working adult females frequently faced favoritism on the misguided belief that, because they were married or would most likely get married, they would non be lasting workers. But married adult females by and large continued on their occupations for many old ages and were non a transient, impermanent, or unreliable work force. From 1960 to the early 1970s the inflow of married adult females workers accounted for about half of the addition in the entire labour force, and working married womans were remaining on their occupations longer before get downing households. The figure of aged working besides increased markedly.

Since 1960 more and more adult females with kids have been in the work force. This alteration is particularly dramatic for married adult females with kids under age 6: 12 per centum worked in 1950, 45 per centum in 1980, and 57 per centum in 1987. Merely over half the female parents with kids under age 3 were in the labour force in 1987. Black adult females with kids are more likely to work than are white or Latino adult females who have kids. Over half of all black households with kids are maintained by the female parent merely, compared with 18 per centum of white households with kids.

Despite their increased presence in the work force, most adult females still have primary duty for housekeeping and household attention. In the late seventiess work forces with an employed married woman spent merely about 1.4 hours a hebdomad more on family undertakings than those whose married woman was a full-time housewife.

A important issue for many adult females is maternity leave, or clip off from their occupations after giving birth. By federal jurisprudence a full-time worker is entitled to clip off and a occupation when she returns, but few provinces by the early 1990s required that the leave be paid. Many states, including Mexico, India, Germany, Brazil, and Australia require companies to allow 12-week pregnancy leaves at full wage.

Womans in Politicss

American adult females have had the right to vote since 1920, but their political functions have been minimum. Not until 1984 did a major party choose a adult female Geraldine Ferraro of New York to run for vice-president ( see Ferraro ) .

Jeanette Rankin of Montana, elected in 1917, was the first adult female member of the United States House of Representatives. In 1968 Shirley Chisholm of New York was the first black adult female elected to the House of Representatives ( see Chisholm ) . Hattie Caraway of Arkansas foremost appointed in 1932 was, in 1933, the first adult female elected to the United States Senate. Senator Margaret Chase Smith served Maine for 24 old ages ( 1949-73 ) . Others were Maurine Neuberger of Oregon, Nancy Landon Kassebaum of Kansas, Paula Hawkins of Florida, and Barbara Mikulski of Maryland.

Wifes of former governors became the first adult females governors Miriam A. Ferguson of Texas ( 1925-27 and 1933-35 ) and Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming ( 1925-27 ) ( see Ross, Nellie Tayloe ) . In 1974 Ella T. Grasso of Connecticut won a governorship on her ain virtues.

In 1971 Patience Sewell Latting was elected city manager of Oklahoma City, at that clip the largest metropolis in the state with a adult female city manager. By 1979 two major metropoliss were headed by adult females: Chicago, by Jane Byrne, and San Francisco, by Dianne Feinstein. Sharon Pratt Dixon was elected city manager of Washington, D.C. , in 1990.

French republics Perkins was the first adult female Cabinet member as secretary of labour under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Oveta Culp Hobby was secretary of wellness, instruction, and public assistance in the Dwight D. Eisenhower Cabinet. Carla A. Hills was secretary of lodging and urban development in Gerald R. Ford & # 8217 ; s Cabinet. Jimmy Carter chose two adult females for his original Cabinet Juanita M. Kreps as secretary of commercialism and Patricia Roberts Harris as secretary of lodging and urban development. Harris was the first African American adult female in a presidential Cabinet. When the separate Department of Education was created, Carter named Shirley Mount Hufstedler to head it. Ronald Reagan & # 8217 ; s Cabinet included Margaret Heckler, secretary of wellness and human services, and Elizabeth Dole, secretary of transit. Under George Bush, Dole became secretary of labour ; she was succeeded by Representative Lynn Martin. Bush chose Antonia Novello, a Hispanic, for surgeon general in 1990.

Reagan set a case in point with his assignment in 1981 of Sandra Day O & # 8217 ; Connor as the first adult female on the United States Supreme Court ( see O & # 8217 ; Connor ) . The following twelvemonth Bertha Wilson was named to the Canadian Supreme Court. In 1984 Jeanne Sauve became Canada & # 8217 ; s first female governor-general ( see Sauve ) .

In international personal businesss, Eleanor Roosevelt was appointed to the United Nations in 1945 and served as president of its Commission on Human Rights ( see Roosevelt, Eleanor ) . Eugenie Anderson was sent to Denmark in 1949 as the first adult female embassador from the United States. Jeane Kirkpatrick was named embassador to the United Nations in 1981.

Three adult females held their states & # 8217 ; highest elected offices by 1970. Sirimavo Bandaranaike was premier curate of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) from 1960 to 1965 and from 1970 to 1977 ( see Bandaranaike ) . Indira Gandhi was premier curate of India from 1966 to 1977 and from 1980 until her blackwash in 1984 ( see Gandhi, Indira ) . Golda Meir was premier curate of Israel from 1969 to 1974 ( see Meir ) . The first adult female caput of province in the Americas was Juan Peron & # 8217 ; s widow, Isabel, president of Argentina in 1974-76 ( see Peron ) . Elisabeth Domitien was premier of the Central African Republic in 1975-76. Margaret Thatcher, who foremost became premier curate of Great Britain in 1979, was the lone individual in the twentieth century to be reelected to that office for a 3rd back-to-back term ( see Thatcher ) . Besides in 1979, Simone Weil of France became the first president of the European Parliament.

In the early 1980s Vigdis Finnbogadottir was elected president of Iceland ; Gro Harlem Brundtland, premier curate of Norway ; and Milka Planinc, Prime Minister of Yugoslavia. In 1986 Corazon Aquino became president of the Philippines ( see Aquino ) . From 1988 to 1990 Benazir Bhutto was premier curate of Pakistan the first adult female to head a Muslim state ( see Bhutto ) .

In 1990 Mary Robinson was elected president of Ireland and Violeta Chamorro, of Nicaragua. Australia & # 8217 ; s first female Prime Minister was Carmen Lawrence of Western Australia ( 1990 ) , and Canada & # 8217 ; s was Rita Johnston of British Columbia ( 1991 ) . In 1991 Khaleda Zia became the premier curate of Bangladesh and Socialist Edith Cresson was named France & # 8217 ; s first female Prime Minister. Poland & # 8217 ; s first female premier curate, Hanna Suchocka, was elected in 1992.

Feminist Doctrines

At the terminal of the eighteenth century, single autonomy was being heatedly debated. In 1789, during the Gallic Revolution, Olympe de Gouges published a & # 8216 ; Declaration of the Rights of Woman & # 8217 ; to protest the revolutionaries & # 8217 ; failure to advert adult females in their & # 8216 ; Declaration of the Rights of Man & # 8217 ; . In & # 8216 ; A Vindication of the Rights of Women & # 8217 ; ( 1792 ) Mary Wollstonecraft called for enlightenment of the female head.

Margaret Fuller, one of the earliest female newsmans, wrote & # 8216 ; Woman in the Nineteenth Century & # 8217 ; in 1845. She argued that persons had unlimited capacities and that when people & # 8217 ; s functions were defined harmonizing to their sex, human development was badly limited.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prima theorist of the adult females & # 8217 ; s rights motion. Her & # 8216 ; Woman & # 8217 ; s Bible & # 8217 ; , published in parts in 1895 and 1898, attacked what she called the male prejudice of the Bible. Contrary to most of her spiritual female co-workers, she believed further that organized faith would hold to be abolished before true emancipation for adult females could be achieved. ( See besides Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. )

Charlotte Perkins Gilman characterized the place as inefficient compared with the mass-production techniques of the modern mill. She contended, in books like & # 8216 ; Women and Economics & # 8217 ; ( 1898 ) , that adult females should portion the undertakings of homemaking, with the adult females best suited to cook, to clean, and to care for immature kids making each several undertaking.

Politically, many women’s rightists believed that a concerted society based on socialist economic rules would esteem the rights of adult females. The Socialist Labor party, in 1892, was one of the first national political parties in the United States to include adult female right to vote as a board in its platform.

During the early twentieth century the term new adult female came to be used in the popular imperativeness. More immature adult females than of all time were traveling to school, working both in blue- and white-collar occupations, and life by themselves in metropolis flats. Some societal critics feared that feminism, which they interpreted to intend the terminal of the place and household, was prevailing. Actually, the customary wonts of American adult females were altering small. Although immature people dated more than their parents did and used the car to get away parental supervising, most immature adult females still married and became the traditional homemakers and female parents.

Womans in Reform Motions

Womans in the United States during the nineteenth century organized and participated in a great assortment of reform motions to better instruction, to originate prison reform, to censor alcoholic drinks, and, during the pre-Civil War period, to liberate the slaves.

At a clip when it was non considered respectable for adult females to talk before assorted audiences of work forces and adult females, the emancipationist sisters Sarah and Angelina Grimke of South Carolina boldly spoke out against bondage at public meetings ( see Grimke Sisters ) . Some male emancipationists including William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Frederick Douglass supported the right of adult females to talk and take part every bit with work forces in antislavery activities. In one case, adult females delegates to the World & # 8217 ; s Anti-Slavery Convention held in London in 1840 were denied their topographic points. Garrison thereupon refused his ain place and joined the adult females in the balcony as a witness.

Some adult females saw analogues between the place of adult females and that of the slaves. In their position, both were expected to be inactive, concerted, and obedient to their master-husbands. Womans such as Stanton, Lucy Stone, Lucretia Mott, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth were women’s rightists and emancipationists, believing in both the rights of adult females and the rights of inkinesss. ( See besides single lifes. )

Many adult females supported the moderation motion in the belief that bibulous hubbies pulled their households into poorness. In 1872 the Prohibition party became the first national political party to acknowledge the right of right to vote for adult females in its platform. French republics Willard helped establish the Woman & # 8217 ; s Christian Temperance Union ( see Willard, Frances ) .

During the mid-1800s Dorothea Dix was a leader in the motions for prison reform and for supplying mental-hospital attention for the needy. The settlement-house motion was inspired by Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889, and by Lillian Wald, who founded the Henry Street Settlement House in New York City in 1895. Both adult females helped immigrants set to metropolis life. ( See besides Addams ; Dix. )

Womans were besides active in motions for agricultural and labour reforms and for birth control. Mary Elizabeth Lease, a taking Populist spokeswoman in the 1880s and 1890s in Kansas, immortalized the call, & # 8220 ; What the husbandmans need to make is raise less maize and more hell. & # 8221 ; Margaret Robins led the National Women & # 8217 ; s Trade Union League in the early 1900s. In the 1910s Margaret Sanger crusaded to hold birth-control information available for all adult females ( see Sanger ) .

Contending for the Vote

The first adult females & # 8217 ; s rights convention took topographic point in Seneca Falls, N.Y. , in July 1848. The declaration that emerged was modeled after the Declaration of Independence. Written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, it claimed that & # 8220 ; all work forces and adult females are created equal & # 8221 ; and that & # 8220 ; the history of world is a history of perennial hurts and trespasss on the portion of adult male toward woman. & # 8221 ; Following a long list of grudges were declarations for just Torahs, equal educational and occupation chances, and the right to vote.

With the Union triumph in the Civil War, adult females emancipationists hoped their difficult work would ensue in right to vote for adult females every bit good as for inkinesss. But the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, adopted in 1868 and 1870 severally, granted citizenship and right to vote to inkinesss but non to adult females.

Disagreement over the following stairss to take led to a split in the adult females & # 8217 ; s rights motion in 1869. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, a moderation and antislavery advocator, formed the National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) in New York. Lucy Stone organized the American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) in Boston. The NWSA agitated for a woman-suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution, while the AWSA worked for right to vote amendments to each province fundamental law. Finally, in 1890, the two groups united as the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) . Lucy Stone became president of the executive commission and Elizabeth Cady Stanton served as the first president. Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, and Dr. Anna Howard Shaw served as ulterior presidents.

The battle to win the ballot was slow and thwarting. Wyoming District in 1869, Utah Territory in 1870, and the provinces of Colorado in 1893 and Idaho in 1896 given adult females the ballot but the Eastern provinces resisted. A woman-suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution, presented to every Congress since 1878, repeatedly failed to go through.

Excerpted from Compton & # 8217 ; s Interactive Encyclopedia

Copyright ( degree Celsius ) 1994, 1995 Compton & # 8217 ; s NewMedia, Inc.

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