LECTURES

IN CONTRASTIVE LEXICOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN LANGUAGES

T.O
.
Mizin

Kyiv – 2005

& # 1052 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1058 ; . & # 1054 ; . & # 1050 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; . & # 1053 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; III & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; . & # 8211 ; & # 1050 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1074 ; ,

2005. & # 8211 ; & # 1089 ; .

& # 1056 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ;
:
& # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; , & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1058 ; . & # 1040 ; . & # 1052 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1052 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1040 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; ) ;

& # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; , & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1030 ; . & # 1042 ; . & # 1058 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; ( & # 1050 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; )

& # 1044 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; , & # 1103 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; . & # 1056 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1091 ; , & # 1089 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; , & # 1092 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; , & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1111 ; , & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1091 ; .

& # 1055 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; III & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; .

& # 1044 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1096 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1042 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1056 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1050 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; .

Foreword

Lectures in Contrastive Lexicology of the English and Ukrainian Languages are intended for pupils of English at universities. Lectures are devoted to the undermentioned subjects: the Morphological and Semantic Structures of Words ; Synonyms. Antonyms. Homonyms ; Word Combinations and Phraseology in Modern English and Ukrainian Languages ; the Etymology of English and Ukrainian Words ; General Characteristics of the Vocabulary.

The purpose of the talks is to take the pupils to a deeper apprehension of the Modern Englishand Ukrainian lexical systems.

The list of bibliographical mentions will function as a usher to those who would wish to achieve a more complete position of the subjects discussed.

THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS AND WORD-BUILDING

1. General jobs of the theory of the word.

2. The construction of the word. Types of morphemes and their specific characteristics.

3. Affixation.

4. Conversion.

5. Composition.

6. Shortening.

7. Back-formation.

8. Blend.

9. Gradation.

10. Stress interchange.

11. Sound imitation.

1. General Problems of the Theory of the Word. The Definition of the Word

The jobs associated with the definition of the word have ever been most complex and remain debatable. Determining the word involves considerable troubles for the standards employed in set uping it are of different character and each linguistic communication presents a separate system with its ain forms of vocabulary points, its specific types of structural units and its ain ways of separating them. The matteris that the simplest word has many different facets. It has a sound signifier because it is a certain agreement of phonemes.

It has its morphological construction, being acertain agreement of morphemes.

Bing the cardinal component of any linguistic communication system, the word is a kind of focal point for the jobs of phonemics, lexicology, sentence structure, morphology and besides some other scientific disciplines that have to cover with linguistic communication and address, such as doctrine, psychological science and likely quiteafew other subdivisions of cognition. All efforts to characterize the word are needfully specificfor each sphere of scientific discipline and are considered nonreversible by the representatives of all the other spheres and criticised for rawness,

The definition of the word from the point of position of doctrine:

Wordss are non mere sounds but names of affair ( T.Hobbes ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of physiology:

A word is a cosmopolitan signal that can replace any other signal from the environment in arousing a response in a human being ( I.Pavlov ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of Machine Mathematical Linguisticss:

A word is a sequence of characters between two spaces.

The definition of the word from the point of position of sentence structure:

A word is a minimal sentence ( H.Sweet ) .

A word is a minimal free signifier ( L.Bloomfield ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of semantics:

Wordsare meaningful units ( S. Ullmann ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of sentence structure and semantics:

A word is one of the smallest wholly fulfilling spots of stray units into which the sentence resolves itself ( E.Sapir ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of semantics and phonemics:

A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its facet of denoting something which is spoken about ( A.Gardiner ) .

The definition of the word from the point of position of semantics, phonemics and grammar:

A word is the association of a given significance with a givengroup ofsounds susceptible to a given grammatical employment ( A.Meillet ) .

Many bookmans have attempted to specify the word as a lingual phenomenon. Yet none of the definitions can be considered wholly satisfactory in all facets. The definition which is a spot drawn-out but takes into history different facets and hence can be considered optimum is the definition of the word given be I.Arnold:

The word is a address unit used for the intents of human communicating, materially stand foring a group of sounds, possessing a significance, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterised by formal and semantic integrity.

2.
The Structure of the Word. Types of Morphemes and their Specific Features

If viewed structurally, words appear to be divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Like a word a morpheme is an association of a given significance with a given group of sounds. But unlike a word it is non independent. Morphemes occur as components of words. But there are rather a batch of words which contain merely one morpheme.

The word morpheme is of the Greek beginning. Morphe means signifier, the postfix & # 8211 ; eme means the smallest unit.

Morphemes can be divided into two chief types: free ( those that can happen entirely ) and edge ( those which can non happen entirely ) .The word wool, for case, has one free morpheme, the word woollen consists of two morphemes: wool ( which is free ) and & # 8211 ; en ( which is bound ) . The word & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; consists of the free morpheme & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; and the edge morpheme & # 8211 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; .

A word has at least one lexical morpheme represented by a root by which we mean the ultimate component component which remains after the remotion of affixes and it does non acknowledge any farther analysis. It is the common component of words within a word-family. It is the primary component of the word, its basic portion conveys its cardinal lexical significance. There are many root-morphemes which can stand entirely as words: tabular array, auto chair, room. It is one of the specific characteristics of the English linguistic communication. Free morphemes can be found merely among roots. But non all roots are free morphemes. Merely productive roots are free.

Unlike roots affixes are normally bound morphemes. Harmonizing to their map and significance prefixes and postfixs are divided into derivational and functional. There are several differences between them. Derivational affixes are those by agencies of which new words are formed: to learn & # 8211 ; a instructor. Functional are those by agencies of which new signifiers of words are formed: Teach & # 8211 ; Teachs. Derivational affixes permit the permutation of one word by another without this affix. Functional affixes do non allow such permutation without go againsting grammar regulations. Derivational affixes license farther derivation: Teach & # 8211 ; learning & # 8211 ; teaching-room. Functional affixes do non allow such derivation. Derivational affixes do non unite freely. Functional affixes combine more or less freely. The postfix

& # 8211 ; s can be added practically to any noun to organize the plural signifier.

3. Affixation

Affixation is the creative activity of a word by modifying its root with an affix. It is a really productive type of word formation.

In conformance with the division of derivational affixes into postfixs and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation.

A careful survey of a great many suffixal and prefixal derived functions has revealed an indispensable difference between them.

First of all in modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjectival formation. Prefixation is typical of verb formation.

Prefixes modify the lexical significance of roots to which they are added. A prefixal derivative normally joins the portion of address the unprefixed word belongs to.

e.g. : definite & # 8211 ; indefinite ; convenient & # 8211 ; inconvenient.

In a suffixal derivative the postfix does non merely modify the lexical significance of the root it is affixed to, but the word itself is normally transferred to another portion of address.

e.g. : attention ( N ) & # 8211 ; careless ( A ) , good ( A ) & # 8211 ; goodness ( N ) .

A postfix closely knit together with a root forms a merger retaining less of its independency than a prefix which is, as a general regulation, more independent semantically.

e.g. : authorship & # 8211 ; the act of one who writes ; the ability to compose ;

to rewrite & # 8211 ; to compose once more.

In the English linguistic communication there prevails either suffixation or prefixation, in the Ukrainian linguistic communication they can be used in the same word.

English postfixs normally transfer a word from one portion of address into another, Ukrainian affixes ne’er do it.

Prefixation

Derivational morphemes affixed before the root are called prefixes. They modify the lexical significance of the root, but in making so they seldom impact its basic lexico-grammatical constituent. Unlike suffixation, which is normally bound up with a paradigm of a certain portion of address, prefixation is considered to be impersonal in this regard. The lone exclusions are the prefixes be- , en- , a- , pre- , station.

e.g. : small ( A ) & # 8211 ; belittle ( V ) ;

friend ( N ) & # 8211 ; befriend ( V ) ;

able ( A ) & # 8211 ; enable ( V ) ;

bravery ( N ) & # 8211 ; encourage ( V ) ;

slumber ( N ) & # 8211 ; asleep ( word of the class of province ) ;

pes ( N ) & # 8211 ; afoot ( Adv ) ;

war ( N ) & # 8211 ; prewar ( A ) ;

war ( N ) & # 8211 ; postwar ( A ) .

But normally prefixes do non alter a portion of address.

The Source of Prefixes

Prefixs originated from fanciful words, which in the class of clip lost their independent significances and became prefixes.

e.g. : rhenium ( Lat. Adv. ) & # 8211 ; one time once more or back ;

under ( OE Adv. , Prep. ) – under ;

bow ( OE Adv. , Prep ) & # 8211 ; foresee.

Nowadays this procedure continues. In Modern English there exist the alleged semi-prefixes – words which are losing their significances.

e.g. : stone-blind, profoundly deaf, crabbed, doomed.

The Classification of Prefixes

Prefixs can be classified from the point of position of their significances.

Among them we can individual out prefixes of the negative significance: un- , in- , dis- , mis- .

e.g. : comfy & # 8211 ; uncomfortable, convenient & # 8211 ; inconvenient, satisfied & # 8211 ; dissatisfied, understand & # 8211 ; misunderstand.

Prefixs denoting reversal or repeat of an action: un- , dis- , re- , & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; – , & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; – .

e.g. : lock & # 8211 ; unlock, respect & # 8211 ; neglect, see & # 8211 ; reconsider, & # 1108 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 8211 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 8217 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; , & # 1087 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 8211 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; .

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication the most productive is the prefix & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; – , which is used to organize adjectives and nouns, but ne’er verbs: & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; . A really productive prefix is the prefix & # 1073 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1079 ; – : & # 1073 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; . In the English linguistic communication this prefix corresponds to the postfix & # 8211 ; less: defenceless.The prefixes & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; – , & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; – , & # 1072 ; – are used as parts of borrowed words and they are unproductive: & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; , & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; , & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; .

Prefixes denoting infinite and clip dealingss: fore- , pre- , post- , over- , super- , & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; – , & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1076 ; – , & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; – , & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1076 ; – , & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; – , & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; – .

e.g. : Tell & # 8211 ; foretell, war & # 8211 ; prewar, war & # 8211 ; postwar, spread & # 8211 ; overspread, construction & # 8211 ; superstructure, & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 8211 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 8211 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 8211 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; .

Prefixs can be international:

– Anti-/ & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; – ( antifascist, & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1096 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ) ;

– Counter-/ & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; ( countermarch, & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1096 ; ) ;

– sub-/ & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1073 ; ( pigboat, & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; ) .

Some prefixes can hold a semantic individuality merely ( but no lingual similarity ) :

– foresee & # 8211 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ;

– extranatural & # 8211 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; .

There can be semantically foreign prefixes refering to one of the contrasted linguistic communications:

– de- ( decamp ) ;

– mis- ( misstate ) ;

– & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; – ( & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; – & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1091 ; ) ;

– & # 1097 ; & # 1086 ; – ( & # 1097 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1097 ; & # 1077 ; ) .

A specifically Ukrainian phenomenon is the use of the prefix & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; – ( & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ) .

Suffixation

Suffixation is the formation of words with the aid of postfixs. Suffixes normally modify the lexical significance of roots and reassign words to a different portion of address. There are postfixs, nevertheless, which do non switch words from one portion of address into another. A postfix of this sort normally transfers a word into a different semantic group.

e.g. : A concrete noun becomes an abstract one: kid & # 8211 ; childhood.

Suffixs can be classified harmonizing to their ability to organize a new portion of address, to their beginning, productiveness.

Noun-forming postfixs:

– -er ( instructor, worker ) ,

– -ing ( life, reading ) ;

– -ness ( kindness, tenderness ) . These postfixs are productive.

– -age ( ocean trip, bravery ) ;

– -ard ( coward, rummy ) ;

– -ment ( understanding, employment ) ;

– -th ( strength, length ) . These postfixs are non-productive.

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication these are the undermentioned postfixs:

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; ( & # 1096 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; , & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; ) ;

– – & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; , & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; ) ;

– – & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; ( & # 1075 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; , & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; ) ;

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1095 ; ( & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1095 ; , & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1095 ; ) ;

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1089 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; , & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; ) ;

– – & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; ( & # 1091 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; , & # 1079 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; ) .

Adjective-forming postfixs:

– -able ( movable, clear ) ;

– -ful ( powerful, delicious ) ;

– -ish ( milky, studious ) ;

– -less ( useless, hopeless ) ;

– -y ( noisy, cheery ) . These are productive postfixs.

– -en ( aureate, woollen ) & # 8211 ; non-productive.

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication these are the undermentioned postfixs:

– & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; – ( & # 1079 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; )

– & # 1085 ; – ( & # 1093 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1082 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; )

– & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; – ( & # 1097 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1082 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; )

– & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; -/ & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; – ( & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; ) .

Some postfixs are homonymic. For illustration, the suffix ful- can organize adjectives and nouns: careful ( Adj ) & # 8211 ; smattering ( N ) .

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication ( but non in English ) diminutive postfixs are frequently used:

– & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; ) , – & # 1095 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; ) , – & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; ( & # 1074 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; ) .

Numeral-forming postfixs:

– -teen ( 13, 15 ) ;

– -ty ( 60, 70 ) ;

– -th ( 7th, 8th ) . These are non-productive postfixs.

Pronoun-forming postfixs:

– -s ( ours, yours ) . The postfix is non-productive.

Verb-forming postfixs:

– – Ate ( complicate, navigate ) ;

– – nut ( darken, strengthen ) ;

– – fy ( mean, simplify ) ;

– – Ute ( attribute, execute ) . These postfixs are non-productive.

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication these are the postfixs: ( & # 1091 ; & # 1074 ; ) & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; – , & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; – ( & # 1089 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1096 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; , & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ) .

Adverb & # 8212 ; organizing postfixs:

– – ly ( rapidly, recently ) ;

– – long ( askance, hasty ) ;

– – ward ( s ) frontward, toward ( s ) ;

– -ways, wise ( clockwise, otherwise, crabways ) . Of all these postfixs merely the postfix

-ly is productive.

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication that is the postfix & # 1086 ; – : & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; , & # 1096 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; .

From the point of position of semantics postfixs can be classified in the undermentioned manner:

1. Agent postfixs:

– -ist/ – & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; /- & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ( journalist, & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ) ;

– ar/- & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; /- & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; ( bookman, & # 1096 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; ) ;

– ier-/-yer/ – & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; ( teller, & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; ) .

2. Suffixes denoting abstract impressions:

– -ism/ – & # 1110 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1084 ; ( socialism, & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1084 ; ) ;

– -tion/ – & # 1072 ; & # 1094 ; ( presentation, & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; ) ;

– -dom/ – & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; /- & # 1094 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; ( land, & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; ) ;

– -hood/ – & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; ( brotherhood, & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; ) .

3. Appraising postfixs:

– -ette ( kitchenette ) ;

– -y/-ie/-ey ( effeminate ) ;

– -ling ( duckling ) .

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; / & # 1103 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; , & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; )

– – & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; ) ;

– – & # 1077 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; ) ;

– – & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1089 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; ) ;

– – & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; ) .

All Ukrainian diminutive postfixs are productive. In English merely & # 8211 ; ie/ey, -ette are productive.

4. Gender/sex showing postfixs.

In the Ukrainian linguistic communication they can expressmasculinegender:

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; / & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; ( & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; , & # 1096 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1088 ; ) ;

– – & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; / & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ( & # 1073 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ) ;

– – & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; ( & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; ) ;

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; / & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; ( & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; ) .

Feminine gender can be expressed by agencies of the undermentioned postfixs:

– – & # 1082 ; ( & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; ) ;

– – & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; ( & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1072 ; ) .

Neuter gender is expressed by agencies of:

– – & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; ( & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; ) ;

– – & # 1082 ; ( & # 1074 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1096 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; ) ;

– – & # 1094 ; ( & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1077 ; ) .

English gender postfixs are merely sex expressing: histrion & # 8211 ; actress.

5. International postfixs:

– -er/or & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; ( music director, & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; ) ;

– -ist/ & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ( socialist, & # 1089 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; ) ;

– -tion/ & # 1094 ; ( revolution, & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; ) ;

– -able/ & # 1072 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; ( clear, & # 1095 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; ) .

In both linguistic communications there are semi-affixes. In English these are the elements:

loadsa- , friendly, -something.

In Ukrainian the semi-suffixes are: & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; – , & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; – , & # 1089 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; – , & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; – , – & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; , – & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; ( & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1086 ; , & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; , & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; , & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; ) .

4. Conversion 4. Conversion

Conversion ( zero derivation, root formation, functional alteration ) is the procedure of coining a new word in a different portion of address and with different distribution features but without adding any derivative component, so that the basic signifier of the original and the basic signifier of derived words are homonymic. This phenomenon can be illustrated by the undermentioned instances: work & # 8211 ; to work, love & # 8211 ; to love, H2O & # 8211 ; to H2O.

If we regard these words from the angle of their morphemic construction, we see that they are root words. On the derivational degree, nevertheless, one of them should be referred to a derived word, as holding the same root morpheme they belong to different parts of address. Consequently the inquiry arises here: & # 8220 ; What serves as the word-building agencies in such instances? & # 8221 ; It would look that the noun is formed from the verb ( or frailty versa ) without any morphological alteration, but if we probe deeper into the affair, we necessarily come to the decision that the two words differ merely in the paradigm. Therefore, it is the paradigm that is used as a word-building agency. Hence, we can specify transition as the formation of a new word through alterations in its paradigm.

The alteration of the paradigm is the lone word-building agencies of transition. As the paradigm is a morphological class, transition can be described as a morphological manner of organizing words.

As a type of word-formation transition exists in many linguistic communications. What is specific for the English vocabulary is non its mere presence, but its intense development.

The chief ground for the widespread development of transition in contemporary English is no uncertainty the absence of morphological elements functioning as classifying signals, or, in other words, of formal marks taging the portion of address to which the word belongs. The fact that the sound form does non demo to what portion of address the word belongs may be illustrated by the word back. It may be a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb.

Many affixes are homonymic and hence the general sound form does non incorporate any information as to the possible portion of address.

e.g. : maiden ( N ) , darken ( V ) , woollen ( A ) , frequently ( Adv ) .

O. Jesperson points out that the causes that made transition so widely spread are to be approached diachronically. The noun and verb have become indistinguishable in signifier foremost as a consequence of the loss of terminations. More rarely it is the prefix that is lost ( head & lt ; gemynd ) . When terminations had disappeared phonetical development resulted in the meeting of sound signifiers for both elements of these braces.

e.g. : OE carian ( verb ) and caru ( noun ) merged into attention ( verb, noun ) ; OE drinkan ( verb ) and drinca, drinc ( noun ) merged into drink ( verb, noun ) .

A similar homonymy resulted in the adoption from French of braces of words of the same root but belonging in Gallic to different parts of address. These words lost their affixes and became phonetically indistinguishable in the procedure of assimilation.

Prof. A. Smirnitsky is of the sentiment that on a synchronous degree there is no difference in correlativity between such instances as listed above, i.e. words originally differentiated by affixes and subsequently going homonymic after the loss of terminations ( sleep & # 8211 ; noun: : slumber & # 8211 ; verb ) and those formed by transition ( pencil & # 8211 ; noun: : pencil & # 8211 ; verb ) .

Prof. I. Arnold is of the sentiment that prof. Smirnitsky is mistaken. His error is in the wish to name both instances transition, which is unlogical if he, or any of his followings, accepts the definition of transition as a word-building procedure which implies the diachronistic attack. Prof. I. Arnold states that synchronically both types sleep ( noun ) & # 8211 ; slumber ( verb ) and pencil ( noun ) & # 8211 ; pencil ( verb ) must be treated together as instances of patterned homonymy. But it is indispensable to distinguish the instances of transition and handle them individually when the survey is diachronistic.

Conversion has been the topic of a great many treatments since 1891 when

H. Sweet foremost used the term in his New English Grammar. Assorted sentiments have been expressed on the nature and character of transition in the English linguistic communication and different constructs have been put frontward.

The intervention of transition as a morphological manner of organizing words was suggested by A.I. Smirnitsky and accepted by R.Z. Ginzburg, S.S. Khidekel,

G.Y. Knyazeva, A.A. Sankin.

Other linguists sharing, on the whole, the construct of transition as a morphological manner of organizing words disagree, nevertheless, as to what serves here as a word-building agency. Some of them specify transition as a non-affixal manner of organizing words indicating out that its characteristic characteristic is that a certain root is used for the formation of a flatly different word without a derivational affix being added

( I.R. Galperin, Y.B. Cherkasskaya ) .

Others hold the position that transition is the formation of new words with the aid of a zero-morpheme ( H. Marchand ) .

There is besides a point of position on transition as a morphological-syntactic word-building agencies ( Y.A. Zhluktenko ) , for it involves, as the linguists sharing this construct maintain, both a alteration of the paradigm and of the syntactic map of the word.

e.g. : I need some paper for my room: He is papering his room.

Besides, there is besides a strictly syntactic attack normally known as a functional attack to transition. In Great Britain and the United States of America linguists are inclined to see transition as a sort of functional alteration. They define transition as a displacement from one portion of address to another contending that in modern English a word may work as two different parts of address at the same clip.

The two classs of parts of address particularly affected by transition are the noun and the verb. Verbs made from nouns are the most legion among the words produced by transition.

e.g. : to manus, to face, to intrude, to chase, to blackjack.

Nouns are often made from verbs: gimmick, cut, walk, travel, travel.

Verbs can besides be made from adjectives: to blanch, to yellow, to chill.

A word made by transition has a different significance from that of the word from which it was made though the two significances can be associated. There are certain regularities in these associations which can be approximately classified. In the group of verbs made from nouns some regular semantic associations are the undermentioned:

– A noun is a name of a tool & # 8211 ; a verb denotes an action performed by the tool: to stab, to brush.

– A noun is a name of an animate being & # 8211 ; a verb denotes an action or facet of behaviour typical of the animate being: monkey & # 8211 ; to tamper, snake & # 8211 ; to snake. Yet, to angle does non intend to act like a fish but to seek to catch fish.

– A noun denotes a portion of a human organic structure & # 8211 ; a verb denotes an action performed by it: manus & # 8211 ; to manus, shoulder & # 8211 ; to shoulder. However, to face does non connote making something by or even with one & # 8217 ; s face but turning it in a certain way.

– A noun is a name of some profession or business & # 8211 ; a verb denotes an activity typical of it: a meatman & # 8211 ; to slaughter, a male parent & # 8211 ; to beget.

– A noun is a name of a topographic point & # 8211 ; a verb denotes the procedure of busying this topographic point or seting something into it: a bed & # 8211 ; to bed, a corner & # 8211 ; to corner.

– A noun is the name of a container & # 8211 ; a verb denotes an act of seting something within the container: a can & # 8211 ; to can, a bottle & # 8211 ; to bottle.

– A noun is the name of a repast & # 8211 ; a verb denotes the procedure of taking it: supper & # 8211 ; to supper, tiffin & # 8211 ; to tiffin.

The suggested groups do non include all the great assortment of verbs made from nouns by transition. They merely represent the most obvious instances and exemplify the great assortment of semantic interrelatednesss within the alleged born-again braces and the complex nature of the logical associations which underlie them.

In existent fact, these associations are more complex and sometimes even vexing.

Types of Conversion

Partial transition is a sort of a dual procedure when foremost a noun is formed by transition from a verbal root and following this noun is combined with such verbs as to give, to do, to take to organize a separate phrase: to hold a expression, to take a swim, to give a whistling.

There is a great figure of idiomatic prepositional phrases every bit good: to be in the know, in the long tally, to acquire into a scraping. Sometimes the elements of these looks have a fixed grammatical signifier, as, for illustration, where the noun is ever plural: It gives me the creeps ( leaps ) . In other instances the grammatical signifiers are free to alter.

Reconversion is the phenomenon when one of the significances of the born-again word is a beginning for a new significance of the same root: overseas telegram ( & # 1084 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; ) & # 8211 ; to overseas telegram ( & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ) & # 8211 ; overseas telegram ( & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; ) ; aid ( & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; ) & # 8211 ; to assist ( & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1097 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ) & # 8211 ; aid ( & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1111 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1110 ; ) , trade ( & # 1082 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1100 ; ) & # 8211 ; to cover ( & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; ) & # 8211 ; trade ( & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1090 ; ) .

Substantivation can besides be considered as a type of transition. Complete substantivation is a sort of substantivation when the whole paradigm of a noun is acquired: a private – the private & # 8211 ; privates & # 8211 ; the genitalias. Alongside with complete substantivation there exists partial substantivation when a characteristic or several characteristics of a paradigm of a noun are acquired: the rich. Besides the substantivized adjectives denoting human existences there is a considerable group of abstract nouns: the Singular, the Present. It is therefore apparent that substantivation has been the object of much contention. Those who do non accept substantivation of adjectives as a type of transition consider transition as a procedure limited to the formation of verbs from nouns and nouns from verbs. But this point of position is far from being universally accepted.

Conversion is non characteristic of the Ukrainian linguistic communication. The lone type of transition that can be found there is substantivation: & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1093 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; .

5 Composition

Composition can be defined as the formation of a lexical unit out of two or more roots, normally the first differentiating, modifying or measure uping and the 2nd identifying. The last component expresses a general significance, whereas the prefixed component renders it less by and large. Any compound word has at least two semantic Centres but they are ne’er equal in their semantic value. Thus a compound word is characterised by both structural and semantic integrity. It makes them map in a sentence as a separate lexical unit.

Compound words are remarkably in writing. They frequently come into being by popular demand. They are formed merely by uniting two words that are in current use. There are three types of compound words:

– Compound words with the solid representation: ballistic capsule, hardtop, & # 1079 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; .

– Hyphenated compound words: sit-in, freeze-dry, & # 1076 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; – & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; .

– Compound words represented by a phrase: cold war, free flight.

Compound words can be farther classified: from the functional point of position, from the point of position of the manner the constituents of the compounds are linked together, from the point of position of different ways of composing.

Functionally compounds are viewed as words belonging to different parts of address. The majority of modern English compounds belong to nouns and adjectives: hot-dog, slow-coach, worldold. Adverbs and conjunctions are represented by an undistinguished figure of words: exterior. Composition in verbs is non productive either: to rough-house, to bitch.

In the English linguistic communication compound words can be graded harmonizing to frequence in the undermentioned manner: nouns & # 8211 ; adjectives & # 8211 ; verbs. In the Ukrainian linguistic communication the strategy will be the undermentioned ; adjectives & # 8211 ; nouns & # 8211 ; verbs.

Harmonizing to the type of relationship between the constituents compound words can be coordinating and subordinating.

Coordinative are the compounds in which neither of the constituents dominates the other, both are structurally and semantically independent: secretary-stenographer, actor-manager, & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; – & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; . The component stems belong to the same portion of address. They are divided into three groups: linear, reduplicative and those formed by fall ining the phonetically variated rhythmic signifiers.

Linear compounds denote a individual or an object that is two things at the same clip: actor-manager is an histrion and a director at the same clip. & # 1051 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; – & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; is & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; and & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; at the same clip.

Reduplicative compounds are the consequence of the repeat of the same root: even, tick-tick.Such words in the Ukrainian linguistic communication are non considered to be compounds.

Compounds which are formed by fall ining the phonetically variated rhythmic signifiers of the same root are: drip-drop, ding-dong, helter-skelter.

Coordinating compounds of the last two groups are largely restricted to the conversational bed and are characterised by a heavy affectional charge.

Subordinating compounds are the words in which the constituents are non equal either semantically or structurally. The 2nd constituent is the structural Centre, the grammatically dominant portion of the word, which imparts its part-of-speech significance to the whole word: profoundly deaf, age-long, wrist-watch, babysitter, & # 1084 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1100 ; , & # 1089 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; .

Harmonizing to the order of constituents subordinating compounds are divided into syntactic and asyntactic.

Syntactic are the words the constituents of which are placed in the order of words in free phrases: wild hyacinth, slow-coach, know-nothing.

Asyntactic are the words whose roots are non placed in the order that resembles the order of words in a free phrase: juicy, tear-stained, oil-rich.

Harmonizing to the grade of motive compound words can be motivated, partly motivated and non-motivated.

Motivated compounds are those whose significances are the amount of significances of their constituents: chalkboard, schoolroom. Partially motivated compounds are those in which one of the constituents has changed its significance: chatter-box, lady-killer. Non-motivated compounds are those in which neither of the elements preserves its significance: ladybug, highboy.

Structurally compounds can be classified into impersonal, morphological and syntactic.

Impersonal compounds that are formed without any linking elements are called simple impersonal: sun-flower, shop-window, & # 1083 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; – & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; , & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; – & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1084 ; . Neutral-derived compounds are formed by agencies of some affix: fair-haired, new-comer. Neutral contracted compounds are those in which one of the parts is contracted: TV-set, V-day. Morphologic compounds are formed by agencies of some linking component: Anglo-Saxon, spokesman, handcraft, & # 1078 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; , & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; . Syntactic compounds are formed from sections of address: Jack-of-all-trades, pick-me-up, go-between, Jack-in-the-box, homebody, & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; – & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; .

It should be mentioned that among compound words the group of bahuvrihi is pointed out. The term bahuvrihi is borrowed from the syntacticians of ancient India. Its actual significance is & # 8220 ; much-riced & # 8221 ; . These are the compounds dwelling of A+N roots and calling a thing metonymically: Large wig, green-horn, lazy-bones & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1093 ; , & # 1078 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1093 ; . Semantically the bahuvrihi are about constantly characterised by a depreciating, ironical, emotional tone.

In the English linguistic communication there are many words which were compounds though merely now they are non treated as such: window ( vind + auga ) , daisy ( twenty-four hours & # 8217 ; s oculus ) , ever ( all+way+s ) , adult female ( wif+man ) , breakfast ( break+fast ) . Such compounds are called concealed or disguised.

6. Shortening

Word-building procedures involve non merely qualitative but besides quantitative alterations.

As a type of word-building shortening of spoken words besides called cutting, curtailment or contraction, is recorded in the English linguistic communication as far back as 15 century. It is another reasonably productive manner of vocabulary enrichment. The traveling force behind it is economic system of attempt expressed in the tendency towards monosyllabism that has ever been characteristic of the English vocabulary.

Among shortenings differentiation should be made between lexical abbreviations and cuttings.

Lexical abbreviations are formed by a coincident operation of shortening and intensifying.

Differentiation should be made between shortening of words in written address and in the domain of unwritten intercourse. Shortening of words in written address consequences in graphical abbreviations which are, in fact, marks stand foring words and word groups of high frequence in assorted domains of human activity: RD for route, St for street on envelopes. English graphical abbreviations include instead legion shortened discrepancies of Latin and Gallic words and word groups: a.m. ( Lat. ante meridiem ) & # 8211 ; in the forenoon, before midday ; p.m. ( Lat. station meridiem ) & # 8211 ; in the afternoon ; i.e. ( Lat. id.est ) & # 8211 ; that is.

The characteristic characteristic of graphical abbreviations is that they are restricted in usage to written address, happening merely in assorted sorts of texts, articles, books. In reading many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent: Mr ( Mister ) , Oct. ( October ) . It is natural that some graphical abbreviations should bit by bit perforate into the domain of unwritten intercourse: SOS ( Save our Souls ) , MP ( Member of Parliament ) .

The words formed from the initial letters of each of the successive or major parts of a compound term are called acronyms: the USA ( United States of America ) , the NATO ( North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ) , WASP ( Women & # 8217 ; s Air Force Service Pilots ) , & # 1057 ; & # 1064 ; & # 1040 ; ( & # 1057 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1064 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1040 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; ) , & # 1054 ; & # 1054 ; & # 1053 ; ( & # 1054 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1054 ; & # 1073 ; & # 8217 ; & # 1108 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1053 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1081 ; ) . They are used as words and if an abbreviation that has a broad currency is inconvenient for articulation, it is sometimes altered: W.R.N.S. ( Women & # 8217 ; s Royal Naval Service ) was hard to articulate, so it was changed to WRENS.

There are two possible ways of reading acronymsin the English linguistic communication. If the brief written signifier can be read as though it were an ordinary English word it will be read like one: the NATO, the UNESCO, the UNO. The 2nd manner of reading acronyms is reading harmonizing to the ABC: BBC ( the British Broadcasting Corporation ) , G.I. ( Government Issue ) .

The 2nd group of sawed-off words is represented by cuttings. Niping consists in the cutting off of one of several syllables of the word. It can be of three types: apheresis, faint, apocope.

Aphaeresis is the skip of the initial portion of the word. In many instances the sawed-off word differs from its beginning merely stylistically: telephone & # 8211 ; phone, omnibus & # 8211 ; coach. Sometimes, nevertheless, the sawed-off word is slightly modified in significance or even altered: ague ( crisp ) & # 8211 ; cute ( reasonably, clever ) , espy ( see at a distance ) & # 8211 ; undercover agent ( to seek to acquire secret information ) .

Some words owe their historical development to apheresis as for case down from adown which in its bend developed from the Anglo-Saxon of dune ( from the hill, from the down ) .

Many first names were shortened the apheresis manner: Bess ( Elisabeth ) , Becky ( Rebecca ) etc.

Faint is the skip of an unstressed center syllable: phantasy & # 8211 ; illusion, courtesy & # 8211 ; curtsey. Syncopated words used to be popular with poets ( e & # 8217 ; en & # 8211 ; even, ne & # 8217 ; er & # 8211 ; ne’er ) because of strictly rhythmical considerations. Modern poesy seldom if of all time resorts to syncope. There are some graphical abbreviations of this type: Mr, Mrs, LP.

Apocope is the skip of the concluding portion of the word. It is the most productive type of shortening. It is largely through apocope that stylistic equivalent words are coined. It is the conversational bed that net incomes from apocope: gym ( secondary school ) , specs ( eyeglassess ) , croc ( crocodile ) . Proper names are besides apocopated: Nick ( Nicholas ) , Ed ( Edward ) , & # 1051 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; ( & # 1051 ; & # 1102 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; ) . There are some words that are rarely if of all time used in their unapocopated signifier ( saloon for public house, brig for hermaphrodite brig ) .

Apocope and faint are non characteristic of the Ukrainian linguistic communication. Though apocope is used in Ukrainian slang: & # 1091 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; , & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1080 ; .Apocope is frequently used with combination: & # 1075 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; , & # 1084 ; & # 1110 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; . There are non so many words of this type in English: Internet, Eurobank.

Cases of a combination of several shortening devices are besides possible: baby buggy & # 8211 ; baby buggy ( syncope + apocope ) ; icebox & # 8211 ; electric refrigerator ( apheresis + apocope ) .

Shortening brings new words in the same portion of address. Most lexical units of this type are nouns. Shortened verbs like rpm from revolve, check from tabulate are really rare. Such verbs as to phone, to sum up ( to sum up, entire ) , to taxi, to vac come to look like clipped words but are in fact, denominal verbs made through transition. Clipped adjectives are besides few in figure: comfy & # 8211 ; comfy, awkward & # 8211 ; awk, impossible & # 8211 ; imposs.

It is a well-known fact that in the class of clip a good many slang cuttings have found their manner into standard English. Some of them occur both in spoken and written English, others keep merely conversational touch.

The coining of clipped word-forms may ensue either in the ouster of one of the words from the vocabulary or in set uping a clear semantic distinction between the two units. In a few instances the full words become new roots: Chapman & # 8211 ; fellow, brandywine & # 8211 ; brandy. But in most instances a sawed-off word exists in the vocabulary together with the longer word from which it is derived and normally has the same lexical significance differing merely in stylistic mention. The inquiry of course arises whether the sawed-off and original signifiers should be considered separate words. Though it is obvious that in the instance of semantic difference between a sawed-off unit and a longer one from which it is derived they can be termed as two distinguishable words: cabriolet & # 8211 ; cab. Some linguists hold the position that as the two units do non differ in significance but merely in stylistic application, it would be incorrect to use the term word to the shortened unit. In fact, the sawed-off unit is a word-variant. Other linguists contend that even when the original word and the sawed-off signifier are by and large used with some difference in manner, they are both to be recognised as two distinguishable words. If this intervention of the procedure of word-shortening is accepted, the indispensable difference between the shortening of words and the usual procedure of word-formation should be pointed out.

– Wordss built by affixation, for illustration, are of a more complex character both structurally and semantically. Shortened words are structurally simple words and in most instances have the same lexical significance as longer words from which they are derived.

– There are no structural forms after which new shortened words could be coined. At any rate, lingual research has failed to set up any so far.

Lexical abbreviations and clipped words possess some distinctive features. They are the undermentioned:

– When executing syntactical maps of ordinary words they take on grammatical inflexions: tests, MPs.

– They may be used with articles: a motorcycle, the BBC.

– They may be combined with derivational affixes and used in combination: M.Pess ( adult female & # 8211 ; member of Parliament ) , hanky from hankie

– Clipped words are characteristic of conversational address, lexical abbreviations are used in written address.

7. Back Formation

Back formation or back derivation is a term of diachronistic linguistics. It implies the inferring of a short word from a long one. If we take, for illustration, the word talker we reasonably link it with the verb to talk. The being of a derivative talker suggests that the basic word speak besides exists. Now, if talker is correlated to talk, so editor must hold the footing, edit excessively. But historically speaking, things are different.

There are words in English which owe their beginning to one portion of a word being mistaken for some derivative postfix or more seldom a prefix. A word of this sort has frequently been supposed to connote the being of a primary word from which it has been derived. Similarly, the new verb to burgle has been created from burglar, obviously through reinterpretation on the analogy to the prevarication from prevaricator. Further illustrations of back formation are: to hush from husht, to quibble from shyster, to scrutinize from hearer, to peeve from cranky. These illustrations show th