, Research Paper

The Battle of the Spanish Armada

The great naval conflict between Spain and England in 1588- one of the

most of import conflicts in the history of the world- is known as the Battle of

the Invincible Armada. But in a sense, this is a misnomer. An unbeatable armada

is one that can non be defeated, yet the mighty fleet of war vessels that Spain sent

to occupy England, was defeated so severely that Spain could ne’er once more govern the

oceans. How was it possible that this armada, which had awed all of Europe with

its size and strength, was unable to stand up against the forces of a much

smaller and less powerful enemy? The reply lies in the differences between

these two states and their swayers, Elizabeth I of England and Philip II of

Spain.

During the sixteenth century, Spain was at the tallness of her power. Newly

discovered universes and conquerings of different peoples had yielded Spain an

copiousness of cherished metals and treasures, which made Spain the enviousness of all the

other European states. By 1580, King Philip II was governing over an imperium that

covered three-quarterss of the known universe. Even the antediluvian Romans would hold

been covetous of its size. ( Walker 15-19 )

Religion was one of the compelling motivations behind the actions and

aspirations of Spain. Philip & # 8217 ; s male parent, Emperor Charles V, had established himself

as the defender of Christendom. He besides had the dream of unifying all of the

Christian European states against the Turks and the Moors, who had been

terrorising Catholicity from one terminal of the Mediterranean to the other. However,

his dreams were hindered with the coming of the Protestant Reformation, which

split Christendom into two parts. ( Marx 22-25 )

Philip II continued in his male parent & # 8217 ; s footfalls as the guardian of

Catholicity. After the Turks were defeated in a decisive sea conflict in 1571,

Philip turned his attending to another serious menace to Christendom: his

Protestant neighbours. Devoutly spiritual and good friends with Pope Sixtus V,

he was willing to utilize all of his resources, including his hoarded wealths from the New

World, his big ground forces, and his immense fleet of war vessels, merely to unify Europe

under a common Catholic religion. ( Marx 28-33 )

He likely would hold accomplished his end excessively, if it weren & # 8217 ; T for the

Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. England at this clip, nevertheless, was non

about every bit powerful or every bit affluent as Spain. Her revenue enhancement grosss were so little that

sovereigns were forced to sell their gems and lands merely to maintain nutrient on the

tabular array. As for a military power, England had a few work forces and weaponries, and a fleet of

ships better equipped for trading goods than contending. ( McKee 45 )

England was besides sing other jobs during this clip. The

other parts of her kingdom- Scotland, Wales, and Ireland- were frequently in an unfastened

rebellion against England over the affair of faith. Even the people of England

herself were divided between Catholicism and Protestantism. Furthermore, a

adult female, who was thought to be a weak swayer, occupied the throne.

There were a few major grounds why Philip II needed to suppress England,

or at least befriend her. First, he was a leader in the Catholic motion to

rub out the unorthodoxy of Protestantism. The longer Elizabeth stayed on the throne,

the more hard this undertaking became. She non merely was the most of import

Protestant swayer but besides provided the Protestants in northern Europe with

support for their opposition against the Church of Rome. In add-on, English

Catholics were being persecuted more and more badly, chiefly because Elizabeth

feared that they were non loyal to her. For a long clip, Philip was forced to

endure this because Spain and the other chief Catholic state, France, were

contending each other, and Philip needed to maintain England impersonal. But confederations

were ne’er permanent in Europe ; states that were acrimonious enemies one twenty-four hours

became close Alliess the following. In 1572, the Gallic decided to fall in Spain in a

Cath-olic confederation against the Protestants. ( Howarth 17-22 )

The 2nd ground was more personal to Philip. He greatly wanted to

seek requital on Elizabeth for all of the anguish she had caused him and his

land. For over 20 old ages, her privateers had been plundering Spanish

colonies in America and puting claims to these metropoliss. Her Sea Dogs, like

Sir Francis Drake, had stolen on the high seas many Spanish hoarded wealths taken from

the New World. This took off from the wealth of Philip & # 8217 ; s land straight.

Furthermore, she had smartly refused his matrimony invitations for old ages, and

had put down a rebellion, which he had tried to get down among the people of

England in 1579. ( Howarth 23-25 )

While Philip II had all of these good grounds to occupy England, he was

still unable to convey himself to move until all of advisers had exhausted

themselves with statements and the English had brought their foraies to Spanish

havens. He was loath to move non for fright of losing the conflict, but for

fright of losing all of his money. While his ground forces had been the most powerful in

all of Europe at this clip, Philip II had gone about ruin to maintain his

professional ground forces. ( Howarth 26 )

The existent beginning of the fleet of Spanish war vessels that were needed for

the invasion of England, the Spanish Armada, was begun in 1583 by the Spanish

naval officer, Marquis of Santa Cruz. It was his licking of a Gallic Protestant

fleet in June of that twelvemonth which truly demonstrated Spanish domination of the

seas. Santa Cruz & # 8217 ; s chief intimate was the Duke of Guise, who led the Catholic

League in France. Their program was as follows: The Duke of Guise was to traverse the

English Channel, under the pro-tection of Santa Cruz and his fleet, and land an

ground forces in Sussex in the sou’-east of England. They would assist the English

Catholics to arise, put the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots free and crown her

Queen of England after killing Elizabeth. ( Graham 44-45 )

One of the chief grounds Philip hesitated was due to the tremendous cost of

pre-paring the fleet. He was horrified by the figure named by Santa Cruz & # 8211 ; four

million ducats! The armada that eventually sailed in 1588 was to be Philip over

ten million ducats, and a ducat today would be deserving about $ 12.50, conveying the

cost to about 125 million dollars. ( Marx 28 )

Philip decided that, alternatively of utilizing the land forces that the Gallic

Duke of Guise had offered, he would direct his ain ground forces from the Nether-lands. All

of his undercover agents in England and on the continent agreed that the most Elizabeth

would be able to raise in defence of her throne was an ill-equipped and

undisciplined muss, nil capable of driving a power-ful, seasoned ground forces such

as the 1 that was to be commanded by the Duke of Parma, the foremost military

mastermind of the clip. Therefore, the conquering of England would be a affair of a few

hebdomads at the most. Then Parma could rapidly return to Holland and complete off the

Rebels without any intervention from exterior. The lone failing of the strategy

ballad in the trouble of transporting Parma & # 8217 ; s ground forces, every bit good as all of its

supplies and war stuffs, across the Channel to England. Santa Cruz was placed

in charge of be aftering all naval facets of the invasion, including the

readying of an unbeatable armada to transport an in-vincible ground forces. ( Marx 30-32 )

However, in 1586, Santa Cruz died. Philip II was forced to pick a new

commanding officer of his fleet. He picked the Duke of Medina Sidonia. He was neither a

soldier, nor a crewman, but was chosen because of his aristocracy.

The executing of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth in 1587

shocked all Catholic states. Named by Mary, Queen of Scots, as her replacement,

Philip was ready now to set up himse1f as the rightful King of England. He

ordered the Duke of Medina to fix the great fleet to sail up the English

Channel to associate up with Parma & # 8217 ; s ground forces from the Netherlands. Together they would

invade England. ( Mckee 53 )

The organisation of the & # 8220 ; Great Enterprise & # 8221 ; ( which this program began to be

called ) was a immense undertaking. Philip sent agents to Germany and Italy to purchase cannons,

armour, gunpowder, blades, and all other arms of war. However, more than merely

arms were needed. Adequate nutrient had to be supplied for six months. Eleven

million lbs of biscuits, 600,000 lbs of salt porc, 40,000 gallons of olive

oil, 14,000 barrels of vino were but a portion of the necessities for a force of

over 30,000 work forces. The conveyances, urcas, were to be filled with 5,000 excess braces

of places, 11,000 braces of sandals, every bit good as equipment to mend ships, and

axes, spades, and shovels for delving trenches and besiegings. ( Marx 38-39 )

With the fleet went six sawboness and six doctors, 180 priests as

religious advisors, 19 justnesss and 50 decision makers, carefully selected to put

up authorities in England, and 146 immature work forces who volunteered for the escapade,

every bit good as 728 retainers. ( Marx 40 )

The chief undertaking of the Armada would be to transport soldiers to contend in

England. Apart from the 22 great Portuguese and Spanish combat ships, there

were merchant ships converted for conflict. Smaller dashs and zabras were used

as courier ships and guards.

The Armada was divided into 10 squadrons, led by the most celebrated and

experient commanding officers of the Spanish forces. In charge of the Biscay ships was

Don Juan Martinez de Recalde. Don Pedro de Valdes led the Andalusian ships. Don

Miguel de Oquendo, nicknamed the & # 8220 ; Glory of the Fleet, & # 8221 ; was the epic leader of

the Guipuzcoan fleet. One of the most gallant commanding officers was the immature Don

Alonso de Leyva, whose undertaking was to take over should Medina be killed or be

disabled. ( Marx 43-45 )

During the development of the Spanish fleet, England prepared for war as

good. Defenses were improved around all metropoliss, particularly London. Since there

was no standing ground forces in England, the Earl of Leicester set up a reserves to

support the Queen and London. John Hawkins had been working on the development

of new ships, and Drake created new methods of contending. Drake & # 8217 ; s new method got

rid of the usual hand-to-hand combat aboard a boarded ship and relied on skilled

crewmans and heavy guns. He figured that if the Spanish would seek to board the

English ships, they could outmanoeuvre them and fire to a great extent upon them. ( Mckee

68 )

By May 11, 1588, the Great Armada was complete and set canvas from Lisbon,

Portugal. One hundred 30 ships transporting 30,000 work forces sailed in an orderly

emanation behind the ship of Medina, which carried the Spanish criterion.

However, conditions was non in the fleet & # 8217 ; s favour. Great winds forced the

ships to dock along the oral cavity of the Tagus River. For over two hebdomads the ships

waited to put canvas. About three hebdomads after they had set canvas once more, they were

forced to seek shelter in Corunna because of atrocious sailing conditions that

had scattered the Armada. ( Lewis 88 )

Medina waited about a month to reassemble his fleet. During this clip,

he repaired ships that had been damaged and refreshed decomposing supplies. The

following clip the ships set out, they were lucky ; the air current that had carried them

North had blown back the Plymoth fleet that came to halt them. ( Lewis 92 )

On Friday, July 29, Captain Thomas Fleyming in the Golden Hind caught

sight of the Spanish fleet, which was merely 50 stat mis south-west of the southern

tip of England. At the clip that Sir Francis Drake was notified of the

nearing Spanish ships, he was playing a game of bowls. It is here where he

gave a instead celebrated remark. & # 8220 ; There is plentifulness of clip to complete the game and

crush the Spaniards. & # 8221 ; He was right, in a sense, because it was low tide and it

would take another 8 hours to take the fleet out of the seaport. When he did put

canvas with 54 ships, the rain made it about impossible to find the place

of any other ship, either ally or enemy. ( Lewis 101 )

Despite these conditions, the Armada sailed on, followed by the English

fleet. Two Spanish ships had been wrecked by acci

dent when The Rosario collided

with other ships. At morning on August 1, she was captured by Drake, along with

the San Salvador, a ship that had blown up. From these two ships, the English

acquired 2,000 cannon balls and 140 barrels of gunpowder.

The following conflict occurred off Portland Bill. It was instead unsuccessful,

for the Spanish were unable to board the English ships, and the English ships

were unable to damage any Spanish ship from long scope firepower. This conflict

has been quoted by the English as the & # 8220 ; waste of a awful value of shot. & # 8221 ; ( Marx

87 )

On August 4, as the Isle of Wright came into position, the Duke of Medina

realized that he needed ammo and military personnels from Parma, but was unable to

make them. The English fleet was determined to forestall the Spanish from

come ining a small recess, known as the Solent. Howard ordered two ships, the Ark

Royal and the Golden Lion to be towed into conflict by dinghies. Three Spanish

ships detached from the chief fleet in order to prosecute the two English vass.

For a few hours, these ships bombarded each other. Merely as the air current eventually

came to the Spanish ships & # 8217 ; advantage, the more agile English ships were able to

acquire off. The Spanish fleet, nevertheless, continued nor’-east to the Strait of

Capital of delaware with the hope of run intoing up with Parma at Dunkirk to reload his supplies.

However, as he was sailing, Medina learned that there was no anchorage deep

plenty for the fleet on the Flemish shore. ( Walker 48 )

When the English learned that the Great Fleet was forced to ground off

Calais, they felt it was their clip to strike. They got ready to direct in

fireships. The Spanish knew that the Italian applied scientist, Giambelli, had made for

the English fireships laden with explosives. These & # 8220 ; Hellburners & # 8221 ; were the most

feared arms for a fleet at ground tackle. These fireships were besides used by the

English to interrupt up the semilunar formation of the Armada. This

agreement of ships was used at close quarters to seek and environ and so

board the English ships. ( Walker 49-50 )

The Spanish began to fix. Tenders stood guard with long grapples to

tow the fireships off from the chief fleet. Medina ordered the ships to be ready

to weigh ground tackle for a speedy pickup. As it was a drawn-out concern haling up

heavy sea ground tackles, the maneuver was to attach them to buoys. If the fireships came,

so the ships cut their overseas telegrams and escaped, go forthing their heavy ground tackles

attatched to the buoys. When the danger was over, the ships could return to pick

up the ground tackles. ( Graham 233 )

The Dover Squadron, led by Lord Henry Seymour joined Lord Howard & # 8217 ; s

squadrons. Now the Queen & # 8217 ; s navy about equaled the Armada in figure. The English

recognized their advantage. They filled eight old ships with inflammable

stuff and waited for the air current and tide. ( Marx 120 )

After midnight, the waiting Spaniards saw the freshness from the fireships

nearing with the tide. As they came closer, their guns overheated and

exploded, doing a terrifying sight. The Spanish hurriedly cut their overseas telegrams. In

the pitch-blackness, they collided with each other in their attempt to get away.

The immense galleass, the San Lorenzo, was severely damaged, but no ship was set on

fire.

By daytime on August 8, Medina realized many of his ships were in

danger of running on the shoals of the Flemish seashore, supplying an easy mark

for the pursuing English. With four great ships, he decided to stand and contend,

urgently determined to keep off the English while the remainder of the Armada

collected and made ready for the coming assault. ( Encarta )

Drake, in the Revenge, led the onslaught. One by one, his squadron followed,

opening fire at a 100 paces scope. Frobisher & # 8217 ; s squadron followed Drake & # 8217 ; s.

The Spaniards were outnumbered by approximately ten to one. The English had the air current

behind them, and at close scope, their cannons made immense holes in the Spanish

hulls. Spanish canvass, set uping and palaces were shattered. The pumps of the San

Martin worked urgently to maintain her afloat. ( Marx 144-145 )

In the noise, fume, and confusion it was impossible to see what was

go oning. Other ships gathered, but the chief conflict was between Drake & # 8217 ; s ships

and the large galleons of the Portuguese and Seville squadrons. Three great

Spanish ships sank that twenty-four hours, a twelve more were severely damaged. Six hundred

Spaniards were killed and at least 800 wounded. The decks ran with their blood.

( Marx 150-152 )

Toward eventide, after nine grueling hours, heavy rain and air current ended the

conflict. But worse was to come. Amid the wreckage and blood and the shrieks of

wounded work forces, the air currents blew the incapacitated Spanish ships toward the unreliable

sandbanks. When morning came, the English moved in and the dog-tired Spaniards

prepared themselves for decease. But the English were about out of ammo. No

onslaught came.

Slowly, the Spaniards forged their manner through the shallow Waterss. At

any minute, they could experience the awful stumble of a ship grounded on the littorals.

Then, in the afternoon, the air current changed and blew them off from the deathly

sandbanks. The Duke of Medina wrote: & # 8220 ; We were saved by the air current, by God & # 8217 ; s clemency,

it shifted to the southwest. & # 8221 ; ( McKee 181 )

It is instead unusual that merely 100 Englishmans had been killed since the

foremost brush. Why didn & # 8217 ; t the Spanish heavy weapon do any harm to the English

fleet? One reply may be that the Spanish cannon balls were severely cast and

splintered when fired. Their gunpowder was finer land than the English, and

possibly was unsuited to the heavy cannon. Their guns may even hold exploded on

their gun decks. The merchandiser ships were non built to take either the weight or

the kick of heavy cannon. Continual thumping from their ain guns put an

immense strain on the ships & # 8217 ; lumbers. Their carpenters had the ceaseless undertaking

of calking the leaks. Sometimes the guns were non decently lashed to the gun

decks. When fired, the kick sent the guns jumping across the decks, badly

damaging the ships and injuring the work forces. ( Graham 287 )

When the English fleet turned back, Medina and his captains held a

council of war. Now their undertaking was to acquire the Armada safely back to Spain.

Medina wrote to the King that & # 8220 ; the Armada was so halt and scattered, it

seemed my first responsibility to Your Majesty to salvage it, even at the hazard of a really long

ocean trip in high latitudes. & # 8221 ; The Armada was in no status to turn back and battle

its manner through the Channel. Besides, the air current was still taking it north. They

decided to sail around Scotland and due south in the Atlantic, maintaining good off

from Ireland, back to Spain.

The English, holding given up the pursuit, sent two tenders to drag the

Armada every bit far as the Orkneys. Then they headed south. The veteran Captain Thomas

Fenner of the Non Pareil wrote foretelling the destiny of the Armada. As he wrote,

another awful storm arose.

Spanish histories of this storm describe the sprinkling of the fleet. But

the Armada held on class. On August 19, in a moderate air current, they sailed safely

through the Fair Isle channel between Shetland and the Orkneys, where Scots

fishermen fish. Food was running out. Merely a small slimy green H2O was left

in the unseasoned wooden casks. Most of the biscuits, salt beef, and salt fish

had gone bad. Medina had to ration nutrient, giving each adult male a day-to-day allowance of

eight ounces of a biscuit, and a pint of half wine/half H2O. Horses and mules

were thrown overboard. Of the 130 ships that had set canvas from Lisbon, eight

great ships had been sunk. Many tenders and little trade had been swept manner.

Half the staying ships needed drastic fixs. ( Howarth 234 )

Off the Orkneys, Medina sent a message to the King to state that the

Armada was still together, and capable of acquiring back to Spain, although,

besides the hurt, there were 3,000 sick on board. But shortly the moderate

conditions changed and in the awful seas off Cape Wrath, the Armada began to

interrupt up.

In gale force air currents, the fleet was swept rearward and frontward around the

North of Scotland, confronting a fiercer enemy than the English: the wild sea. The

groaning, leaking ships were kept afloat by tired, hungry work forces working non-stop

at the pumps. Scurvy, dysentery, and febrility were prevailing. Many ships sought land,

looking for nutrient and H2O. Because they had abandoned their sea ground tackles at

Calais and had merely little ground tackles, they were frequently driven onto the stones. As the

conditions worsened, ships were swept off from the chief organic structure of the fleet. Many

sank with all custodies. ( Howarth 245 )

Four great ships were blown back toward Shetland. The Castello Negro was

ne’er seen once more. On September 1, the Barca de Amburg fired a gun to signal she

was droping. The Grand Gonfon took off her crew, many of them wounded and deceasing,

but was herself wrecked off Fair Isle a month subsequently. All her 300 crew were saved,

though many died subsequently of hungriness and febrility. On September 17, the Trinidad

Valencera struck a reef off nor’-east Ireland. Of the 450 work forces on board, some of

whom had been rescued from other ships, merely 32 reached France. The remainder had

been slaughtered, or died of exposure or febrility. ( Marx 224-226 )

On about September 18, one of the worst storms hit the Atlantic. The

Rata Santa Maria Encoronada and the Duquesa Santa Ana took safety in Blacksod

Bay, County Mayo, Ireland. Battles and the whippings of storms shook the Rata,

but worst of all, she excessively had lost her sea ground tackles. In the lifting air current and tide

she dragged her staying ground tackle and grounded on the postponing beach. Her

commanding officer, Don Alonso de Leyva, transferred his work forces to the Santa Ana. This was a

enormous effort, as the Santa Ana was anchored in another portion of the bay and de

Leyva had to process his work forces stat mis across a black promontory through bogs and across

rivers. The to a great extent loaded ship set canvas for Scotland, but was driven on the

stones at Loughros More in the county Donegal. With great bravery de Leyva, who

had broken his leg, got his crew ashore. They had intelligence that three Spanish ships

were sheltering in the seaport of Killybegs. So once more, they set out across the

mountains. At Killybegs they discovered that two of the ships were wrecked. Thi

rteen hundred work forces crammed onto the Girona and once more put canvas for Scotland. In

the dark the air current changed. The Girona hit a reef near the Giant & # 8217 ; s Causeway.

Less than ten work forces survived ; everyone else was drowned, including de Leyva who

had led his work forces so courageously. ( Walker 176 )

When Philip was told the awful intelligence about his glorious ships, he said,

& # 8220 ; I sent them to contend against work forces, non storms. & # 8221 ; Regardless of cost, he set about

edifice better ships and doing weaponries that were more powerful to get the better of the

English.

Elizabeth & # 8217 ; s exchequer was about empty, but, with money collected from

the City of London and from her courtiers, she sent a fleet of 126 ships,

commanded by Drake, to assail the remains of the Armada in Santander. But Drake

and his captains wanted loot every bit good as naval triumph and sailed to Corunna,

trusting to assail Lisbon. Sickness broke out among the crews, and bad conditions

dispersed the ships. The listless fleet straggled back to Plymouth. The Queen

was ferocious and Drake was in shame for several old ages.

Five old ages subsequently, Philip II sent 100 ships to occupy England, but more

than half of them were destroyed by a ferocious gale in the Bay of Biscay. The

following twelvemonth another Spanish fleet about reached the southern seashore of

England, but once more the & # 8220 ; air currents of destiny & # 8221 ; blew them back to Spain.

Overall, the licking of the Spanish Armada by the custodies of the English

had about been like the licking of the great Philistine Goliath by David. This

naval conflict, nevertheless, did much more good for England, than merely an addition in

pride. After this conflict, England took the function as the greatest power in Europe,

and Spain, with a damaged ground forces and damaged pride, could make nil to forestall

this from go oning.