INTRODUCTION The book is intended for English linguistic communication pupils at Pedagogical Universities taking the class of English lexicology and to the full meets the demands of the programme in the topic.
It may besides be of involvement to all readers. whose bid of English is sufficient to enable them to read texts of mean trouble and who would wish to derive some information about the vocabulary resources of Modern English ( for illustration. about equivalent word and opposite word ) . about the stylistic distinctive features of English vocabulary. about the complex nature of the word’s significance and the modern methods of its probe. about English parlances. about those alterations that English vocabulary underwent in its historical development and about some other facets of English lexicology.
One can barely get a perfect bid of English without holding cognition of all these things. for a perfect bid of a linguistic communication implies the witting attack to the language’s resources and at least a partial apprehension of the “inner mechanism” which makes the immense linguistic communication system work. In this book the reader will happen the basicss of the word theory and of the chief jobs associated with English vocabulary. its features and subdivisions.
The purpose of the class is to learn pupils to be word-conscious. to be able to think the significance of words they come across from the significances of morphemes. to be able to recognize the beginning of this or that lexical unit. Lecture I. Working Definitions of Principal Concepts. Lexicology is a subdivision of linguistics. the scientific discipline of linguistic communication. The term Lexi c o cubic decimeter O g Y is composed of two Grecian morphemes: lexis significance ‘word. phrase’ and Son which denotes ‘learning. a section of knowledge’ . Therefore. the actual significance of the term L e x one ñ o cubic decimeter î g ó is ‘the scientific discipline of the word’ .
The actual significance. nevertheless. gives merely a general impression of the purposes and the subject-matter of this subdivision of lingual scientific discipline. since all its other subdivisions besides take history of words in one manner or another nearing them from different angles. Phoneticss. for case. look intoing the phonic construction of linguistic communication. i. e. its system of phonemes and modulation forms. is concerned with the survey of the outer sound signifier of the word. Grammar. which is inseparably bound up with Lexicology. is the survey of the grammatical construction of linguistic communication.
It is concerned with the assorted agencies of showing grammatical dealingss between words and with the forms after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences. Lexicology as a subdivision of linguistics has its ain purposes and methods of scientific research. its basic undertaking being a survey and systematic description of vocabulary in regard to its beginning. development and current usage. Lexicology is concerned with words. variable word-groups. phraseological units. and with morphemes which make up words.
There are two chief attacks in lingual scientific discipline to the survey of linguistic communication stuff. viz. the synchronic ( Gr. syn — ‘together. with’ and chronos — ‘time’ ) and the diachronic ( Gr. Defense Intelligence Agency — ‘through’ ) attack. With respect to S P vitamin E c i a cubic decimeter Lexicology the synchronous attack is concerned with the vocabulary of a linguistic communication as it exists at a given clip. for case. at the present clip.
It is particular D vitamin E s ñ R I p T I v vitamin E L vitamin E ten I c o cubic decimeter O g Y that trades with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a peculiar linguistic communication at a certain clip. A Course in Modern English Lexicology is hence a class in Particular Descriptive Lexicology. its object of survey being the English vocabulary as it exists at the present clip.
The historical attack in footings of Special Lexicology trades with the alterations and the development of vocabulary in the class of clip. It is particular Historical Lexicology that trades with the development of the vocabulary units of a linguistic communication as clip goes by. An English Historical Lexicology would be concerned. therefore. with the beginning of English vocabulary units. their alteration and development. the lingual and extralinguistic factors modifying their construction. significance and use within the history of the English linguistic communication.
Lexicology surveies assorted lexical units: morphemes. words. variable wordgroups and phraseological units. We proceed from the premise that the word is the basic unit of linguistic communication system. the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of lingual analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity within the linguistic communication system. Etymologically the vocabulary of the English linguistic communication is far from being homogenous. It consists of two beds – the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words.
Numerically the borrowed stock of words is well larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise merely 30 % of the entire figure of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the majority of the most frequent words really used in address and authorship. Besides the native words have a wider scope of lexical and grammatical valency. they are extremely polysemous and productive in organizing word bunchs and set looks. Borrowed words ( or loan words or adoptions ) are words taken over from another linguistic communication and modified harmonizing to the forms of the receiving linguistic communication.
In many instances a borrowed word particularly one borrowed long ago is practically identical from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis ( street. school. face ) . The figure of adoptions in the vocabulary of a linguistic communication and the function played by them is determined by the historical development of the state talking the linguistic communication. The most effectual manner of adoption is direct adoption from another linguistic communication as the consequence of contacts with the people of another state or with their literature. But a word may besides be borrowed indirectly non from the beginning linguistic communication but through another linguistic communication.
When analyzing borrowed words one must separate between the two footings – “source of borrowing” and “origin of borrowing” . The first term is applied to the linguistic communication from which the word was instantly borrowed. the 2nd – to the linguistic communication to which the word may be finally traced e. g. table beginning of borrowing – French. beginning of borrowing – Latin elephant – beginning of borrowing – French. origin-Egypt convene – beginning of borrowing – French. originLatin. The closer the two interacting linguistic communications are in construction the easier it is for words of one linguistic communication to perforate into the other.
There are different ways of sorting the borrowed stock of words. First of all the borrowed stock of words may be classified harmonizing to the nature of the borrowing itself as adoptions proper. interlingual rendition loans and semantic loans. Translation loans are words or looks formed from the elements bing in the English linguistic communication harmonizing to the forms of the beginning linguistic communication ( the minute of truth – sp. el momento de la verdad ) .
A semantic loan is the adoption of a significance for a word already bing in the English linguistic communication e. g. the compound word daze brigade which existed in the English linguistic communication with the significance “àâàðèéíàÿ áðèãàäà” acquired a new significance “óäàðíàÿ áðèãàäà” which it borrowed from the Russian linguistic communication. Latin Loans are classified into the subgroups. 1. Early Latin Loans.
Those are the words which came into English through the linguistic communication of Anglo-Saxon folks. The folk had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles. Saxons and Jutes into Britain ( cup. kitchen. factory. port. vino ) . 2. Later Latin Borrowings.
To this group belong the words which penetrated the English vocabulary in the 6th and 7th centuries. when the people of England were converted to Christianity ( priest. bishop. nun. taper ) . 3. The 3rd period of Latin includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman conquering in 1066 and the Renaissance or the Revival of Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken straight from Latin ( major. child. intelligent. permanent ) . 4. The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are chiefly abstract and scientific words ( nylon. molecular. vaccinum. phenomenon. vacuity ) .
Norman-French Borrowings may be subdivided into subgroups: 1. Early loans – 12th – fifteenth century 2. Subsequently loans – get downing from the sixteenth century. The Early Gallic adoptions are simple short words. naturalised in conformity with the English linguistic communication system ( province. power. war. write. river ) Later Gallic adoptions can be identified by their distinctive features of signifier and pronunciation ( government. constabulary. concert dance. scene. businessperson ) . The Etymological Structure of the English Vocabulary: The Native component: I. Indo-germanic component II. Germanic component III. English proper component ( brought by Angles. Saxons and Jutes non earlier than 5 th degree Celsius.
A. D. ) The Borrowed Element: I. II. Celtic ( 5-6th c. A. D. ) Latin: 1st group: B. C. 2nd group: 7 Thursday c. A. D. 3d group: the Renaissance period III. IV. Norse ( 8-11 Thursday c. A. D. ) French: 1. Norman adoptions ( 11-13th c. A. D. ) ; 2. Parisian adoptions ( Renaissance ) V. VI. VII. Grecian Italian ( Renaissance and subsequently ) Spanish ( Renaissance ) VIII. German IX. Indian and others Russian – English lexical correlativities Lexical correlativities are defined as lexical units from different linguistic communications which are phonetically and semantically related. Semantically Russian- English lexical correlativities are assorted.
They may denote mundane objects and normally used things ; barbarous -ãðóáûé . cold – õîëîäíûé . land – ãðóíò . kettle -êîòåë . kitchen êóõíÿ . money – ìîíåòà . sister – ñeñòðà . wolf- âîëê etc. For case the word Bolshevik was at first indivisible in English. which is seen from the signifiers bolshevikism. bolshevikise. bolshevikian entered by some lexicons. Subsequently on the word came to be divided into the morphological elements bolshev-ik. The new morphological division can be accounted for by the being of a figure of words incorporating these elements ( Bolshevism. Bolshevik. bolshevise ; sputnik. udarnik. Menshevik ) .
Assimilation is the procedure of altering the adopted word. The procedure of assimilation of adoptions includes alterations in sound signifier of morphological construction. grammar features. significance and use. Phonetic assimilation comprises alterations in sound signifier and emphasis. Sounds that were foreign to the English linguistic communication were fitted into its strategy of sounds. e. g. In the recent Gallic adoptions dispatch. cafe the long [ vitamin E ] and [ e ] are rendered with the aid of [ ei ] . The speech pattern is normally transferred to the first syllable in the words from foreign beginnings.
The grade of phonic version depends on the period of adoption: the earlier the period the more accomplished this version. While such words as “table” . “plate” borrowed from French in the 8th – 11th centuries can be considered to the full assimilated. later Parisian adoptions ( 15th c. ) such as government. valise. cafe” are still pronounced in a Gallic mode. Grammatical adaptation is normally a less permanent procedure. because in order to work adequately in the receiver linguistic communication a adoption must wholly alter its paradigm.
Though there are some well-known exclusions as plural signifiers of the English Renaissance adoptions – data point pl. informations. standard – pl. standards and others. The procedure of semantic assimilation has many signifiers: narrowing of significances ( normally polysemous words are borrowed in one of the significances ) ; specialization or generalization of significances. geting new significances in the recipient linguistic communication. switching a primary significance to the place of a secondary significance.
Wholly assimilated adoptions are the words. which have undergone all types of assimilation. Such words are often used and are stylistically impersonal. they may happen as dominant words in a synonymic group.
They take an active portion in wordformation. Partially assimilated adoptions are the words which lack one of the types of assimilation. They are subdivided into the groups: 1 ) Borrowings non assimilated semantically ( e. g. Shah. rajah ) . Such words normally denote objects and impressions peculiar to the state from which they came. 2 ) Loan words non assimilated grammatically. e. g. nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek which keep their original plural signifiers ( datum – information. phenomenon phenomena ) . 3 ) Loan words non wholly assimilated phonetically.
These words contain distinctive features in emphasis. combinations of sounds that are non standard for English ( machine. disguise. baccy ) . 4 ) Loan words non wholly assimilated diagrammatically ( e. g. concert dance. coffeehouse. platitude ) . Barbarisms are words from other linguistic communications used by the English people in conversation or in composing but non assimilated in any manner. and for which there are matching English equivalents e. g. aloha Italian – good-bye English. The borrowed stock of the English vocabulary contains non merely words but a great figure of postfixs and prefixes.
When these foremost appeared in the English linguistic communication they were parts of words and merely subsequently began a life of their ain as word-building elements of the English linguistic communication ( -age. -ance. -ess. -merit ) This brought about the creative activity of intercrossed words like deficit. hinderance. loveable and many others in which a borrowed postfix is joined to a native root.
A contrary procedure is besides possible. In many instances one and the same word was borrowed twice either from the same linguistic communication or from different linguistic communications. This accounts for the being of the so called etymological doublets like canal – channel ( Latin -French ) . skirt – shirt ( Sc. English ) . balsam – haulm ( Grecian – French ) .
International words. There exist many words that were borrowed by several linguistic communications. Such words are largely of Latin and Greek beginning and convey impressions which are important in the field of communicating in different states. Here belong names of scientific disciplines ( doctrine. natural philosophies. chemical science. linguistics ) . footings of art ( music. theater. play. creative person. comedy ) . political footings ( political relations. policy. advancement ) . The English linguistic communication became a beginning for international athleticss footings ( football. hockey. cricket. rugger. tennis ) . Lecture II. Working Definitions of Principal Concepts The word is non the smallest unit of the linguistic communication.
It consists of morphemes. The morpheme may be defined as the smallest meaningful unit which has a sound signifier and significance and which occurs in address merely as a portion of a word. Word formation is the creative activity of new words from elements already bing in the linguistic communication. Every linguistic communication has its ain structural forms of word formation. Morphemes are subdivided into root – morphemes and affixational morphemes. The root morpheme is the lexical centre of the word. It is the semantic karyon of a word with which no grammatical belongingss of the word are connected. Affixational morphemes include inflexions and derivational affixes.
Inflection is an affixal morpheme which carries merely grammatical significance therefore relevant merely for the formation of word-forms ( books. opened. strong-er ) . Derivational morpheme is an affixal morpheme which modifies the lexical significance of the root and forms a new word. In many instances it adds the part-of-speech significance to the root ( manage-ment. en-courage. fruit-ful ) Morphemes which may happen in isolation and map as independent words are called free morphemes ( wage. amount. signifier ) . Morphemes which are non found in isolation are called edge morphemes ( -er. un- . -less ) Morphemic analysis.
The cleavage of words is by and large carried out harmonizing to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based upon the binary rule. i. e. each phase of process involves two constituents the word instantly breaks into. At each phase these two constituents are referred to as the Immediate Constituents ( IC ) . Each Intelligence community at the following phase of analysis is in bend broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at components incapable of farther division. i. e. morphemes.
These are referred to as Ultimate Constituents ( UC ) . The analysis of word-structure on the morphemic degree must of course continue to the phase of UC-s. Allomorphes are the phonemic discrepancies of the given morpheme e. g. il- . im- . ir- . are the allomorphes of the prefix in- ( nonreader. of import. irregular. inconstant ) . Monomorphic are root-words consisting of merely one root-morpheme i. e. simple words ( dry. grow. foreman. sell ) . Polymorphic are words dwelling of at least one root-morpheme and a figure of derivational affixes. i. e. derived functions. compounds ( client. payee. body-building. transportation ) .
Derived words are those composed of one root-morpheme and one more derivational morphemes ( cargo. surpassing. promotion ) . Derived words are those composed of one root-morpheme or more. Compound words contain at least two root-morphemes ( warehouse. camera-man ) . Productivity is the ability to organize new words after bing forms which are readily understood by the talkers of a linguistic communication. Synchronically the most of import and the most productive ways of word-formation are affixation. transition. wordcomposition and abbreviation ( contraction ) .
In the class of clip the productiveness of this or that manner of word-formation may alter. Sound interchange or step ( blood – to shed blood. to stay -abode. to strike – shot ) was a productive manner of word edifice in old English and is of import for a historical survey of the English linguistic communication. It has lost its productiveness in Modern English and no new word can be coined by agencies of sound step. Affixation on the reverse was productive in Old English and is still one of the most productive ways of word edifice in Modern English. Affixation is the formation of new words with the aid of derivational affixes.
Suffixation is more productive than prefixation. In Modern English suffixation is a characteristic of noun and adjectival formation. while prefixation is typical of verb formation ( incoming. trainee. chief. publicity ) . Affixs are normally divided into life and dead affixes. Populating affixes are easy separated from the root ( care-ful ) . Dead affixes have become to the full merged with the root and can be singled out by a historical analysis of the development of the word ( admit – L. – ad + mittere ) . Populating affixes are in their bend divided into productive and non-productive affixes.
In many instances the pick of the affixes is a mean of differentiating of significance: uninterested – disinterested distrust – misgiving. Word-composition is another type of word-building which is extremely productive. That is when new words are produced by uniting two or more roots. Root is that portion of a word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm and to which grammatical inflections and affixes are added. The majority of compound words is motivated and the semantic dealingss between the two constituents are crystalline.
Compound words proper are formed by fall ining together stems of words already available in the linguistic communication. Compound proper is a word. the two Immediate Components of which are stems of fanciful words. e. g. ice-cold ( N + A ) . illluck ( A+N ) . Derivational compound is a word formed by a coincident procedure of composing and derivation.
Derivational compound is formed by composing a new root that does non be outside this form and to which postfix is added. Derivational compound is a word consisting of two Immediate Components. merely one of which is a compound root of fanciful words. while the other is a derivational affix. e. g. bluish eyed – ( A+N ) + erectile dysfunction In coordinating compounds neither of the constituents dominates the other. both are structurally and semantically independent and constitute two structural and semantic Centres. e. g. breath-taking. self-discipline. word-formation.
Lecture III. Working Definitions of Principal Concepts Conversion is a extremely productive manner of coining new words in Modern English. Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless manner of word-building. a procedure of doing a new word from some bing root word by altering the class of a portion of address without altering the morphemic form of the original root-word.
The heterotaxy of a word from one portion of address into another brings about alterations of the paradigm. Conversion is non merely extremely productive but besides a peculiarly English manner of word-building. It is explained by the analytical construction of Modern English and by the simpleness of paradigms of English parts of address. A great figure of onesyllable words is another factor that facilitates transition. Typical semantic dealingss within a born-again brace I. Verbs converted from noun ( denominal verbs ) denote: 1. action feature of the object ape ( n ) – to ape ( V ) meatman ( n ) – to slaughter ( V )
2. instrumental usage of the object prison guard ( n ) – to sleep together ( V ) whip ( n ) – to flog ( V ) 3. acquisition or add-on of the object fish ( n ) – to angle ( V ) II. Nouns converted from verbs ( deverbal nouns ) denote: 1. case of the action: to leap ( V ) -jump ( n ) ; to travel ( V ) – move ( n ) 2. agent of the action: to assist ( V ) – aid ( n ) . to exchange ( V ) – switch ( n ) 3. topographic point of action: to drive ( V ) – thrust ( n ) . to walk ( V ) – walk ( n ) 4. object or consequence of the action: to skin ( V ) – Peel ( n ) . to happen ( V ) – find ( n ) . The shortening of words involves the shortening of both words and wordgroups.
Differentiation should be made between shortening of a word in written address ( graphical abbreviation ) and in the domain of unwritten intercourse ( lexical abbreviation ) . Lexical abbreviations may be used both in written and in unwritten address. Lexical abbreviation is the procedure of organizing a word out of the initial elements ( letters. morphemes ) of a word combination by a coincident operation of shortening and intensifying. Niping consists in cutting off two or more syllables of a word. Wordss that have been shortened at the terminal are called apocope ( doc-doctor. mit-mitten. vetveterinary ) .
Wordss that have been shortened at the beginning are called apheresis ( phone-telephone ) . Wordss in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the center are called faint ( ma’m – dame. specs – eyeglassess ) . Sometimes a combination of these types is observed ( tec-detective. frig-refrigerator ) . Blendings ( blends. mergers or blend words ) may be defined as formation that combine two words that include the letters or sounds they have in common as a connecting component ( slimnastics & lt ; slim+gymnasttcs ; mimsy & lt ; miserable+flimsy ; galumph & lt ; gallop+triumph ; neutopia & lt ; new+utopia ) .
The procedure of formation is besides called telescoping. The analysis into immediate components is helpful in so far as it permits the definition of a blend as a word with the first component represented by a root whose concluding portion may be losing. and the 2nd component by a root of which the initial portion is losing. The 2nd component when used in a series of similar blends may turn into a postfix. A new postfix -on ; is. for case. good under manner in such footings as nylon. rayon. silon. formed from the concluding component of cotton. This procedure seems to be really active.
In contemporary English legion new words have been coined late: Reaganomics. Irangate. blacksploitation. workaholic. foodoholic. scanorama etc. Back formation is a semi – productive type of word-building. It is largely active in compound verbs. and is combined with word-composition. The footing of this type of word-building is compound words and word-combinations holding verbal nouns. gerunds. participials or other derivative nouns as their 2nd constituent ( rushdevelopment. finger-printing. sympathizer ) .
These compounds and word-combinations are wrongly considered to be formed from compound verbs which are nonexistent in world. This gives a rise to such verbs as: to rush-develop. to finger-print. to wellwish. Onomatopoeia ( sound-imitation. echoism ) is the naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a natural sound associated with it ( babble. crow. chirrup ) .
Semantically. harmonizing to the beginning of sound onomatopoetic words fall into a few really definite groups. Many verbs denote sounds produced by human existences in the procedure of communicating or in showing their feelings ( babble. yak. giggle. grumble. mutter. murmur. titter. susurration ) .
There are sounds produced by animate beings. birds and insects ( bombilation. cackle. croak. crow. hushing. ululation. moo. meow. boom ) . Besides the verbs copying the sound of H2O ( bubble. splash ) . there are others copying the noise of metallic things ( chink. ting ) or forceful gesture ( clang. clang. whack. whip. whisk ) . Sentence – condensation is the formation of new words by substantivising the whole sayings ( forget-me-not. merry-go-round ) . Sound and stress interchange ( typical emphasis. the displacement of emphasis ) . The kernel of it is that to organize a new word the emphasis of the word is shifted to a new syllable.
It largely occurs in nouns and verbs. Some phonic alterations may attach to the displacement of the emphasis ( export – to export. increase – to increase. interrupt – breach. long -length ) . Lecture IV. Working Definitions of Principal Concepts Semasiology is a subdivision of linguistics concerned with the significance of words and word equivalents.
The chief objects of semasiological survey are as follows: types of lexical significance. lexical ambiguity and semantic construction of words. semantic development of words. the chief inclinations of the alteration of word-meanings. semantic grouping in the vocabulary system. i. e. equivalent word. opposite word. semantic Fieldss. thematic groups. etc. Referential attack to significance.
The common characteristic of any referential attack is that intending is in some signifier or other connected with the referent ( object of world denoted by the word ) . The significance is formulated by set uping the mutuality between words and objects of world they denote. So. significance is frequently understood as an object or phenomenon in the outside universe that is referred to by a word. Functional attack to significance.
In most contemporary methods of lexicological analysis words are studied in context ; a word is defined by its operation within a phrase or a sentence. This functional attack is attempted in contextual analysis. semantic sentence structure and some other subdivisions of linguistics. The significance of lingual unit is studied merely through its relation to other lingual units. So pregnant is viewed as the map of a word in address. Meaning and construct ( impression ) . When analyzing a word one can see that its significance though closely connected with the underlying construct is non indistinguishable with it.
To get down with. construct is a class of human knowledge. Concept is the idea of the object that singles out the most typical. the most indispensable characteristics of the object. So all constructs are about the same for the whole of humanity in one and the same period of its historical development. The significances of words. nevertheless. are different in different linguistic communications. That is to state. words showing indistinguishable construct may hold different semantic constructions in different linguistic communications.
E. g. the construct of “a edifice for human habitation” is expressed in English by the word “house” . in Russian – “äîì” . but their significances are non indistinguishable as house does non possess the significance of “fixed abode of household or household” . which is portion of the significance of the Russian word äîì ; it is expressed by another English word place.
The difference between intending and construct can besides be observed by comparing synonymous words and word-groups showing the same construct but possessing lingual significance which is felt as different in each of the units. e. g. large. big ; to decease to go through off. to fall in the bulk. to kick the pail ; kid. babe. baby. baby.
Concepts are ever emotionally impersonal as they are a class of idea. Language. nevertheless. expresses all possible facets of human consciousness. Therefore the significance of many words non merely conveys some contemplation of nonsubjective world but besides the speaker’s attitude to what he is talking approximately. his province of head. Thus. though the equivalent word large. big. enormous denote the same construct of size. the affectional charge of the word enormous is much heavier than that of the other word.
Meaning is a certain contemplation in our head of objects. phenomena or dealingss that makes portion of the lingual mark – its alleged interior aspect. whereas the soundform maps as its outer aspect. Grammatical significance is defined as the look in Speech of relationships between words. The grammatical significance is more abstract and more generalized than the lexical significance. It is perennial in indistinguishable sets of single signifiers of different words as the significance of plurality in the undermentioned words pupils. dumbbell. Windowss. composings. Lexical significance.
The definitions of lexical significance given by assorted writers. though different in item. hold in the basic rule: they all point out that lexical significance is the realization of construct or emotion by agencies of a definite linguistic communication system. 1 ) The constituent of intending proper to the word as a lingual unit. i. e. recurrent in all the signifiers of this word and in all possible distributions of these signifiers. / Ginzburg R. S. . Rayevskaya N. N. and others. 2 ) The semantic invariant of the grammatical fluctuation of a word / Nikitin M. V. / . 3 ) The material significance of a word. i. vitamin E.
the significance of the chief material portion of the word which reflects the construct the given word expresses and the basic belongingss of the thing ( phenomenon. quality. province. etc. ) the word denotes. /Mednikova E. M. / . Denotation. The conceptual content of a word is expressed in its denotive significance. To denote is to function as a lingual look for a construct or as a name for an single object. It is the denotational significance that makes communicating possible. Intension is the matter-of-fact communicative value the word receives depending on where. when. how. by whom. for what intent and in what contexts it may be used.
There are four chief types of intensions stylistic. emotional. appraising and expressive or escalating. Stylistic intensions is what the word conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the societal fortunes and the appropriate functional manner ( murder V putting to death ) . appraising intension may demo his blessing or disapproval of the object spoken of ( clique V group ) . emotional intension conveys the speaker’s emotions ( mummy V female parent ) . the grade of strength ( adore Vs love ) is conveyed by expressive or intensifying intension.
The mutuality of intensions with denotive significance is besides different for different types of intensions. Therefore. for case. emotional intension comes into being on the footing of denotive significance but in the class of clip may replace it by other types of intension with general accent. rating and conversational stylistic overtone. E. g. terrific which originally meant ‘frightening’ is now a colloquialism significance ‘very. really good’ or ‘very great’ : terrific beauty. terrific pleasance.
The orientation toward the subject-matter. feature of the denotive significance. is substituted here by matter-of-fact orientation toward talker and hearer ; it is non so much what is spoken approximately as the attitude to it that affairs. Carry throughing the significative and the communicative maps of the word the denotive significance is present in every word and may be regarded as the cardinal factor in the operation of linguistic communication. The expressive map of the linguistic communication ( the speaker’s feelings ) and the matter-of-fact map ( the consequence of words upon hearers ) are rendered in intensions.
Unlike the denotive significance. intensions are optional. Intension differs from the implicational significance of the word. Implicational significance is the implied information associated with the word. with what the talkers know about the referent. A wolf is known to be avaricious and cruel ( implicational significance ) but the denotive significance of this word does non include these characteristics. The denotative or the knowing significance of the word wolf is “a wild animate being resembling a Canis familiaris that kills sheep and sometimes even attacks men” .
Its nonliteral significance is derived from implied information. from what we know about wolves – “a cruel greedy person” . besides the adjectival wolfish means “greedy” . Polysemy is really characteristic of the English vocabulary due to the monosyllabic character of English words and the predomination of root words. The greater the frequence of the word. the greater the figure of significances that constitute its semantic construction. A particular expression known as “Zipf’s law” has been worked out to show the correlativity between frequence. word length and lexical ambiguity: the shorter the word. the higher its frequence of usage ; the higher the frequence. the wider.
