& # 1052 ; OC & # 1050 ; & # 1054 ; & # 1042 ; & # 1057 ; & # 1050 ; & # 1048 ; & # 1049 ; & # 1055 ; & # 1045 ; & # 1044 ; & # 1040 ; & # 1043 ; & # 1054 ; & # 1043 ; & # 1048 ; & # 1063 ; & # 1045 ; & # 1057 ; & # 1050 ; & # 1048 ; & # 1049 ; & # 1059 ; & # 1053 ; & # 1048 ; & # 1042 ; & # 1045 ; & # 1056 ; & # 1057 ; & # 1048 ; & # 1058 ; & # 1045 ; & # 1058 ;
& # 1050 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1094 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1099 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ;
& # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1099 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ;
( & # 1076 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1103 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1072 ; )
Coc & # 1090 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ;: & # 1069 ; . & # 1052 ; . & # 1044 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1094 ; , & # 1082 ; . & # 1092 ; . & # 1085 ; . , & # 1076 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1094 ; .
This class of lexicology which forms a portion of the course of study for the English subdivisions of lingual sections of teacher-training colleges is intended for pupils of the 3rd twelvemonth of the twenty-four hours section. It includes 15 talks and 12 seminars which cover the chief subjects of Modern English lexicology: wordbuilding, semantic alterations, wording, adoptions, cognitive semantics, neologism, lexicography. The stuff for seminars includes subjects to be discussed, test inquiries and lexical units to be analized. Lexical units for the analysis were chosen chiefly among neologisms. There is besides a brief list of recommended literature.
The purpose of the class is to learn pupils to be word-conscious, to be able to think the significance of words they come across from the significances of morphemes, to be able to acknowledge the beginning of this or that lexical unit.
Table OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Language units
Wordbuilding
Affixation
Compound words
Conversion
Substantivization
& # 171 ; Stone wall & # 187 ; combinations
Abbreviations
Seconadary ways of wordbuilding
Semantic alterations
Specialization
Generalization
Metaphor and metonymy
Wording
Wayss of organizing phraseological units
Semantic categorization of phraseological units
Structural categorization of phraseological units
Syntactic categorization of phraseological units
Borrowings
Categorization of adoptions harmonizing to the borrowed facet
Categorization of adoptions harmonizing to the grade of assimilation
Categorization of adoptions harmonizing to the linguistic communication from which they were borrowed.
Romanic borrowings/ Latin, French, Italian, Spanish/ .
Germanic adoptions /Scandinavian, German, Holland/ .
Russian adoptions.
Etymological doublets.
Semaciology.
Word – significance.
Lexical significance – impression.
Polysemy.
Homonyms.
Synonyms.
Antonyms.
Local assortments of English.
British and American English.
Archaisms.
Neologisms.
Lexicography.
LEXICOLOGY LEXICOLOGY
The term & # 171 ; lexicology & # 187 ; is of Grecian beginning / from & # 171 ; lexis & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; word & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; logos & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; scientific discipline & # 187 ; / . Lexicology is the portion of linguistics which trades with the vocabulary and characteristic characteristics of words and word-groups.
The term & # 171 ; vocabulary & # 187 ; is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the linguistic communication possesses.
The term & # 171 ; word & # 187 ; denotes the chief lexical unit of a linguistic communication ensuing from the association of a group of sounds with a significance. This unit is used in grammatical maps feature of it. It is the smallest unit of a linguistic communication which can stand entirely as a complete vocalization.
The term & # 171 ; word-group & # 187 ; denotes a group of words which exists in the linguistic communication as a ready-made unit, has the integrity of significance, the integrity of syntactical map, e.g. the word-group & # 171 ; every bit free as a goose & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; gawky & # 187 ; and is used in a sentence as a predicative / He is every bit loose as a goose/ .
Lexicology can analyze the development of the vocabulary, the beginning of words and word-groups, their semantic dealingss and the development of their sound signifier and significance. In this instance it is called historical lexicology.
Another subdivision of lexicology is called descriptive and surveies the vocabulary at a definite phase of its development.
LANGUAGE UNITS LANGUAGE UNITS
The chief unit of the lexical system of a linguistic communication ensuing from the association of a group of sounds with a significance is a word
. This unit is used in grammatical maps feature of it. It is the smallest linguistic communication unit which can stand entirely as a complete vocalization.
A word, nevertheless, can be divided into smaller sense units – morphemes
. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic communication unit. The morpheme consists of a category of discrepancies, allomorphs, which are either phonologically or morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasance.
Morphemes are divided into two big groups: lexical morphemes
and grammatical ( functional ) morphemes
. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and edge. Free lexical morphemes
are roots of words which express the lexical significance of the word, they coincide with the root of simple words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, concurrences and prepositions ( the, with, and ) .
Bound lexical morphemes
are affixes: prefixes ( dis- ) , postfixs ( -ish ) and besides blocked ( alone ) root morphemes ( e.g. Fri-day, cran-berry ) . Bound grammatical morphemes are inflections ( terminations ) , e.g. -s for the Plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present Participle, -er for the Comparative grade of adjectives.
In the 2nd half of the 20th century the English wordbuilding system was enriched by making so called matchwoods
which scientists include in the affixation stock of the Modern English wordbuilding system. Matchwoods are the consequence of niping the terminal or the beginning of a word and bring forthing a figure of new words on the analogy with the primary word-group. For illustration, there are many words formed with the aid of the sliver mini- ( apocopy produced by niping the word & # 171 ; illumination & # 187 ; ) , such as & # 171 ; miniplane & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; minijet & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; minicycle & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; minicar & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; miniradio & # 187 ; and many others. All of these words denote obects of smaller than normal dimensions.
On the analogy with & # 171 ; mini- & # 187 ; at that place appeared the sliver & # 171 ; maxi & # 187 ; – ( apocopy produced by niping the word & # 171 ; maximal & # 187 ; ) , such words as & # 171 ; maxi-series & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; maxi-sculpture & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; maxi-taxi & # 187 ; and many others appeared in the linguistic communication.
When European economic community was organized rather a figure of neologies with the sliver Euro- ( apocopy produced by niping the word & # 171 ; European & # 187 ; ) were coined, such as: & # 171 ; Euratom & # 187 ; & # 171 ; Eurocard & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; Euromarket & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; Europlug & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; Eurotunnel & # 187 ; and many others. These matchwoods are treated sometimes as prefixes in Modern English.
There are besides matchwoods which are formed by agencies of aphaeresis, that is niping the beginning of a word. The beginning of such matchwoods can be variable, e.g. the sliver & # 171 ; Burger & # 187 ; appeared in English as the consequence of niping the German adoption & # 171 ; Hamburger & # 187 ; where the morphological construction was the root & # 171 ; Hamburg & # 187 ; and the postfix -er. However in English the beginning of the word & # 171 ; Hamburger & # 187 ; was associated with the English word & # 171 ; jambon & # 187 ; , and the terminal of the word & # 171 ; Burger & # 187 ; got the significance & # 171 ; a roll cut into two parts & # 187 ; . On the analogy with the word & # 171 ; hamburger & # 187 ; rather a figure of new words were coined, such as: & # 171 ; baconburger & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; beefburger & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cheeseburger & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; fishburger & # 187 ; etc.
The sliver & # 171 ; cade & # 187 ; developed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; cavalcade & # 187 ; which is of Latin beginning. In Latin the verb with the significance & # 171 ; to sit a Equus caballus & # 187 ; is & # 171 ; cabalicare & # 187 ; and by agencies of the inflection -ata the corresponding Participle is formed. So the component & # 171 ; cade & # 187 ; is a combination of the concluding missive of the root and the inflection. The sliver & # 171 ; cade & # 187 ; serves to organize nouns with the significance & # 171 ; connected with the emanation of vehicles denoted by the first constituent & # 187 ; , e.g. & # 171 ; aircade & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; a group of aeroplanes attach toing the plane of a VIP & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; autocade & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; a group of cars escorting the car of a VIP & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; musicade & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; an orchestra participating in a emanation & # 187 ; .
In the seventieths of the 20th century there was a political dirt in the hotel & # 171 ; Watergate & # 187 ; where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election central office. Republicans managed to put in bugs at that place and when they were discovered there was a dirt and the governing American authorities had to vacate. The name & # 171 ; Watergate & # 187 ; acquired the significance & # 171 ; a political dirt & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; corruptness & # 187 ; . On the analogy with this word quite a figure of other words were formed by utilizing the sliver & # 171 ; gate & # 187 ; ( aphaeresis of the word & # 171 ; Watergate & # 187 ; ) , such as: & # 171 ; Irangate & # 187 ; , & # 187 ; Westlandgate & # 187 ; , & # 187 ; shuttlegate & # 187 ; , & # 187 ; milliongate & # 187 ; etc. The sliver & # 171 ; gate & # 187 ; is added chiefly to Proper names: names of people with whom the dirt is connected or a geographical name denoting the topographic point where the dirt occurred.
The sliver & # 171 ; nomadic & # 187 ; was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; car & # 187 ; and is used to denote particular types of cars, such as: & # 171 ; artmobile & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; bookmobile & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; snowmobile & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; tourmobile & # 187 ; etc.
The sliver & # 171 ; napper & # 187 ; was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; kidnapper & # 187 ; and is used to denote different types of crimesters, such as: & # 171 ; busnapper & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; babynapper & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; dognapper & # 187 ; etc. From such nouns the corresponding verbs are formed by agencies of backformation, e.g. & # 171 ; to busnap & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; to babynap & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; to dognap & # 187 ; .
The sliver & # 171 ; omat & # 187 ; was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; automat & # 187 ; ( a coffeehouse in which repasts are provided in slot-machines ) . The significance & # 171 ; self-service & # 187 ; is used in such words as & # 171 ; laundromat & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cashomat & # 187 ; etc.
Another sliver & # 171 ; eteria & # 187 ; with the significance & # 171 ; self-service & # 187 ; was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; cafeteria & # 187 ; . By agencies of the sliver & # 171 ; eteria & # 187 ; the undermentioned words were formed: & # 171 ; groceteria & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; booketeria & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; booteteria & # 187 ; and many others.
The sliver & # 171 ; temblor & # 187 ; is used to organize new words with the significance of & # 171 ; agitating & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; agitation & # 187 ; . This sliver was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; temblor & # 187 ; . Ther following words were formed with the aid of this sliver: & # 171 ; Marsquake & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; Moonquake & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; youthquake & # 187 ; etc.
The sliver & # 171 ; Rama ( ama ) & # 187 ; is a cutting of the word & # 171 ; view & # 187 ; of Greek beginning where & # 171 ; pan & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; all & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; horama & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; position & # 187 ; . In Modern English the significance & # 171 ; position & # 187 ; was lost and the sliver & # 171 ; Rama & # 187 ; is used in advertizements to denote objects of supreme quality, e.g. & # 171 ; autorama & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; exhibition-sale of expensive autos & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; trouserama & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; sale of pants of supreme quality & # 187 ; etc.
The sliver & # 171 ; flower stalk & # 187 ; is a cutting of the word & # 171 ; landscape & # 187 ; and it is used to organize words denoting different types of landscapes, such as: & # 171 ; moonscape & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; streetscape & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; townscape & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; seascape & # 187 ; etc.
Another instance of matchwoods is & # 171 ; tel & # 187 ; which is the consequence of niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; hotel & # 187 ; . It serves to organize words denoting different types of hotels, such as: & # 171 ; motel & # 187 ; ( motor-car hotel ) , & # 171 ; boatel & # 187 ; ( boat hotel ) , & # 171 ; floatel & # 187 ; ( a hotel on H2O, drifting ) , & # 171 ; airtel & # 187 ; ( airport hotel ) etc.
The sliver & # 171 ; theque & # 187 ; is the consequence of niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; apotheque & # 187 ; of Greek beginning which means in Greek & # 171 ; a shop house & # 187 ; . In Russian words: & # 171 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; the component & # 171 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; matching to the English & # 171 ; theque & # 187 ; preserves the significance of hive awaying something which is expressed by the first constituent of the word. In English the sliver & # 171 ; theque & # 187 ; is used to denote a topographic point for dancing, such as: & # 171 ; discotheque & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; jazzotheque & # 187 ; .
The sliver & # 171 ; thon & # 187 ; is the consequence of niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; marathon & # 187 ; . & # 171 ; Marathon & # 187 ; chiefly was the name of a battle-field in Greece, 40 stat mis from Athens, where there was a conflict between the Greek and the Persian. When the Greek won a triumph a Grecian smuggler was sent to Athinais to state people about the triumph. Subsequently on the word & # 171 ; Marathon & # 187 ; was used to denote long-distance competitions in running. The sliver & # 171 ; thon ( athon ) & # 187 ; denotes & # 171 ; something go oning for a long clip & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; competition in endurance & # 187 ; e.g. & # 171 ; dancathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; telethon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; speakathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; readathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; walkathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; moviethon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; swimathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; talkathon & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; swearthon & # 187 ; etc.
Matchwoods can be the consequence of niping adjectives or substantivized adjectives. The sliver & # 171 ; aholic & # 187 ; ( holic ) was formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; alcoholic & # 187 ; of Arabian beginning where & # 171 ; Al & # 187 ; denoted & # 171 ; the & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; koh & # 8217 ; l & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; pulverization for staining palpebras & # 187 ; . The sliver & # 171 ; ( a ) holic & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; infatuated by the object expressed by the root of the word & # 187 ; , e.g. & # 171 ; bookaholic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; computerholic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; coffeeholic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cheesaholic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; workaholic & # 187 ; and many others.
The sliver & # 171 ; genetic & # 187 ; formed by niping the beginning of the word & # 171 ; photogenic & # 187 ; denotes the impression & # 171 ; suited for something denoted by the root & # 187 ; , e.g. & # 171 ; allergenic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cardiogenic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; mediagenic & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; telegenic & # 187 ; etc.
Equally far as verbs are concerned it is non typical of them to be clipped that is why there is merely one sliver to be used for organizing new verbs in this manner. It is the sliver & # 171 ; dramatis personae & # 187 ; formed by niping the beginning of the verb & # 171 ; broadcast & # 187 ; . This sliver was used to organize the verbs & # 171 ; telecast & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; abroadcast & # 187 ; .
Matchwoods can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more or less unreal. In English there are words which consist of two matchwoods, e.g. & # 171 ; telethon & # 187 ; , therefore it is more logical to name words with matchwoods in their construction & # 171 ; compound-shortened words dwelling of two cuttings of words
& # 187 ; .
Matchwoods have merely one map in English: they serve to alter the lexical significance of the same portion of address, whereas prefixes and postfixs can besides alter the part-of-speech significance, e.g. the prefix & # 171 ; en- & # 187 ; and its allomorph & # 171 ; em & # 187 ; can organize verbs from noun and adjectival roots ( & # 171 ; embody & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; enable & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; endanger & # 187 ; ) , & # 171 ; be- & # 187 ; can organize verbs from noun and adjectival roots ( & # 171 ; becloud & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; benumb & # 187 ; ) , & # 171 ; post- & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; pre- & # 187 ; can organize adjectives from noun roots ( & # 171 ; pre-election run & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; post-war events & # 187 ; ) . The chief map of postfixs is to organize one portion of address from another portion of address, e.g. & # 171 ; -er & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; -ing & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; -ment & # 187 ; signifier nouns from verbal roots ( & # 171 ; teacher & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; dancing & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; motion & # 187 ; ) , & # 171 ; -ness & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; -ity & # 187 ; are used to organize nouns from adjectival roots ( & # 171 ; clannishnes & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; marginality & # 187 ; ) .
Harmonizing to the nature and the figure of morphemes representing a word there are different structural types of words
in English: simple, derived, compound, compound-derived.
Simple words
consist of one root morpheme and an inflection ( in many instances the inflection is zero ) , e.g. & # 171 ; rarely & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; chairs & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; longer & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; asked & # 187 ; .
Derived words
consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inlexion, e.g. & # 171 ; deristricted & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; unemployed & # 187 ; .
Compound words
consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflection, e.g. & # 171 ; baby-moons & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; wait-and-see ( policy ) & # 187 ; .
Compound-derived words
consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflection, e.g. & # 171 ; middle-of-the-roaders & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; job-hopper & # 187 ; .
When talking about the construction of words roots
besides should be mentioned. The root is the portion of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the root & # 171 ; hop & # 187 ; can be found in the words: & # 171 ; hop & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; hops & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; hopped & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; skiping & # 187 ; . The root & # 171 ; hippy & # 187 ; can be found in the words: & # 171 ; hippy & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; flower peoples & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; hippy & # 8217 ; s & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; flower peoples & # 8217 ; & # 187 ; . The root & # 171 ; job-hop & # 187 ; can be found in the words: & # 171 ; job-hop & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; job-hops & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; job-hopped & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; job-hopping & # 187 ; .
So stems, the same as words, can be simple, derived, compound and compound-derived. Stems have non merely the lexical significance but besides grammatical ( part-of-speech ) significance, they can be noun roots ( & # 171 ; miss & # 187 ; in the adjectival & # 171 ; girlish & # 187 ; ) , adjectival roots ( & # 171 ; girlish & # 187 ; in the noun & # 171 ; girlishness & # 187 ; ) , verb roots ( & # 171 ; expell & # 187 ; in the noun & # 171 ; expellee & # 187 ; ) etc. They differ from words by the absence of inflections in their construction, they can be used merely in the construction of words.
Sometimes it is instead hard to separate between simple and derived words, particularly in the instances of phonic adoptions from other linguistic communications and of native words with out of use ( alone ) root morphemes, e.g. & # 171 ; perestroika & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cranberry & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; absence & # 187 ; etc.
Equally far as words with matchwoods are concerned it is hard to separate between derived words and compound-shortened words. If a sliver is treated as an affix ( or a semi-affix ) the word can be called derived, e.g.- , & # 171 ; telescreen & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; maxi-taxi & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; shuttlegate & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; cheeseburger & # 187 ; . But if the sliver is treated as a lexical shortening of one of the roots, the word can be called compound-shortened word formed from a word combination where one of the constituents was shortened, e.g. & # 171 ; busnapper & # 187 ; was formed from & # 171 ; bus kidnapper & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; minijet & # 187 ; from & # 171 ; illumination jet & # 187 ; .
In the English linguistic communication of the 2nd half of the 20th century there developed so called block compounds
, that is compound words which have a uniting emphasis but a split spelling, such as & # 171 ; chat show & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; pinguin suit & # 187 ; etc. Such compound words can be easy mixed up with word-groups of the type & # 171 ; rock wall & # 187 ; , so called nominative binomials
. Such lingual units serve to denote a impression which is more specific than the impression expressed by the 2nd constituent and consists of two nouns, the first of which is an property to the 2nd 1. If we compare a nominative binomial with a compound noun with the construction N+N we shall see that a nominative binomial has no integrity of emphasis. The alteration of the order of its constituents will alter its lexical significance, e.g. & # 171 ; vid child & # 187 ; is & # 171 ; a child who is a picture fan & # 187 ; while & # 171 ; child vid & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; a video-film for childs & # 187 ; or else & # 171 ; lamp oil & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; oil for lamps & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; oil lamp & # 187 ; means & # 171 ; a lamp which uses oil for firing & # 187 ; .
Among linguistic communication units we can besides indicate out word combinations of different structural types of idiomatic and non-idiomatic character
, such as & # 171 ; the first violin & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; old salt & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; unit of ammunition tabular array & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; high route & # 187 ; . There are besides sentences which are studied by syntacticians.
Therefore, we can pull the decision that in Modern English the undermentioned linguistic communication units can be mentioned: morphemes, matchwoods, words, nominative binomials, non-idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations, sentences.
WORDBUILDING WORDBUILDING
Word-building is one of the chief ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four chief ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composing, transition, abbreviation. There are besides secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, emphasis interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.
AFFIXATION AFFIXATION
Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the root of a definite portion of address. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation.
The chief map of postfixs in Modern English is to organize one portion of address from another, the secondary map is to alter the lexical significance of the same portion of address. ( e.g. & # 171 ; educate & # 187 ; is a verb, & # 171 ; student & # 187 ; is a noun, and & # 171 ; music & # 187 ; is a noun, & # 171 ; musicdom & # 187 ; is besides a noun ) .
There are different categorizations of postfixs:
1. Part-of-speech categorization. Suffixes which can organize different parts of address are given here:
a ) noun-forming postfixs, such as: -er ( criticizer ) , -dom ( government officials ) , -ism ( agism ) ,
B ) adjective-forming postfixs, such as: -able ( breathable ) , less ( symptomless ) , -ous ( esteemed ) ,
degree Celsiuss ) verb-forming postfixs, such as -ize ( computerize ) , -ify ( micrify ) ,
vitamin D ) adverb-forming postfixs, such as: -ly ( singly ) , -ward ( tableward ) ,
vitamin E ) numeral-forming postfixs, such as -teen ( 16 ) , -ty ( 70 ) .
2. Semantic categorization. Suffixes altering the lexical significance of the root can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming postfixs can denote:
a ) the agent of the action, e.g. -er ( experimenter ) , -ist ( taxist ) , -ent ( pupil ) ,
B ) nationality, e.g. -ian ( Russian ) , -ese ( Nipponese ) , -ish ( English ) ,
degree Celsius ) collectivity, e.g. -dom ( moviedom ) , -ry ( peasantry, -ship ( readership ) , -ati ( literati ) ,
vitamin D ) minuteness, e.g. -ie ( horsie ) , -let ( brochure ) , -ling ( gooseling ) , -ette ( kitchenette ) ,
vitamin E ) quality, e.g. -ness ( copelessness ) , -ity ( accountability ) .
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the root. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of roots are subdivided into:
a ) postfix added to verbal roots, such as: -er ( commuter ) , -ing ( enduring ) , – able ( flyable ) , -ment ( engagement ) , -ation ( cybernation ) ,
B ) postfix added to noun roots, such as: -less ( smogless ) , ful ( roomful ) , -ism ( adventurism ) , -ster ( poll taker ) , -nik ( filmnik ) , -ish ( infantile ) ,
degree Celsius ) postfix added to adjectival roots, such as: -en ( weaken ) , -ly ( pinkly ) , -ish ( longish ) , -ness ( cliquishness ) .
4. Beginning of postfixs. Here we can indicate out the following groups:
a ) indigen ( Germanic ) , such as -er, -ful, -less, -ly.
B ) Romanic, such as: -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.
degree Celsius ) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize.
vitamin D ) Russian, such as -nik.
5. Productiveness. Here we can indicate out the following groups:
a ) productive, such as: -er, -ize, — ly, -ness.
B ) semi-productive, such as: -eer, -ette, -ward.
degree Celsiuss ) non-productive, such as: -ard ( rummy ) , -th ( length ) .
Suffixs can be polysemous, such as: -er can organize nouns with the undermentioned significances: agent, actor of the action expressed by the root ( talker ) , profession, business ( instructor ) , a device, a tool ( sender ) . While talking about postfixs we should besides advert compound postfixs which are added to the root at the same clip, such as -ably, -ibly, ( awfully, moderately ) , -ation ( version from adapt ) .
There are besides debatable instances whether we have a postfix or a root morpheme in the construction of a word, in such instances we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, and words with such postfixs can be classified either as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate ( Irangate ) , -burger ( cheeseburger ) , -aholic ( workaholic ) etc.
Prefixation Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words by agencies of adding a prefix to the root. In English it is characteristic for organizing verbs. Prefixs are more independent than postfixs. Prefixs can be classified harmonizing to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in fanciful words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixs used in fanciful words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- ( unhappy ) . Prefixs used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the linguistic communication as words, e.g. over- ( overhead ) ( californium over the tabular array ) .
The chief map of prefixes in English is to alter the lexical significance of the same portion of address. But the recent research showed that about 25 prefixes in Modern English signifier one portion of address from another ( bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc ) .
Prefixs can be classified harmonizing to different rules:
1. Semantic categorization:
a ) prefixes of negative significance, such as: in- ( priceless ) , non- ( nonformals ) , un- ( unfree ) etc,
B ) prefixes denoting repeat or reversal actions, such as: de- ( decolonize ) , re- ( revegetation ) , dis- ( gulf ) ,
degree Celsius ) prefixes denoting clip, infinite, degree dealingss, such as: inter- ( interplanetary ) , hyper- ( high blood pressure ) , ex- ( ex-student ) , pre- ( pre-election ) , over- ( overdrugging ) etc.
2. Beginning of prefixes:
a ) indigen ( Germanic ) , such as: un- , over- , under- etc.
B ) Romanic, such as: in- , de- , ex- , re- etc.
degree Celsius ) Greek, such as: sym- , hyper- etc.
When we analyze such words as: adverb, accompany where we can happen the root of the word ( verb, company ) we may handle ad- , ac- as prefixes though they were ne’er used as prefixes to organize new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such instances we can handle them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a debatable construction are such as: contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re- , de- , con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical significance and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived 1s.
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon. American lexicologists working on Webster lexicons treat such words as compound words. British lexicologists treat such words as derived 1s.
COMPOSITION COMPOSITION
Composition is the manner of wordbuilding when a word is formed by fall ining two or more roots to organize one word. The structural integrity of a compound word depends upon: a ) the integrity of emphasis, B ) solid or hyphonated spelling, degree Celsius ) semantic integrity, vitamin D ) integrity of morphological and syntactical operation. These are charachteristic characteristics of compound words in all linguistic communications. For English compounds some of these factors are non really dependable. As a regulation English compounds have one uniting emphasis ( normally on the first constituent ) , e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can besides hold a dual emphasis in an English compound, with the chief emphasis on the first constituent and with a secondary emphasis on the 2nd constituent, e.g. blood-vessel. The 3rd form of emphasiss is two degree emphasiss, e.g. snowy, azure. The 3rd form is easy mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphonated spelling.
Spelling in English compounds is non really dependable every bit good because they can hold different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a dash and besides with a interruption, iinsofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a interruption. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a particular type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting emphasis but are spelt with a interruption, e.g. air buccaneering, lading faculty, coin alteration, pinguin suit etc.
The semantic integrity of a compound word is frequently really strong. In such instances we have idiomatic compounds where the significance of the whole is non a amount of significances of its constituents, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic integrity is non strong, e. g. , airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.
English compounds have the integrity of morphological and syntactical operation. They are used in a sentence as one portion of it and merely one constituent alterations grammatically, e.g. These misss are chatter-boxes. & # 171 ; Chatter-boxes & # 187 ; is a predicative in the sentence and merely the 2nd constituent alterations grammatically.
There are two characteristic characteristics of English compounds:
a ) Both constituents in an English compound are free roots, that is they can be used as words with a typical significance of their ain. The sound form will be the same except for the emphasiss, e.g. & # 171 ; a green-house & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; a green house & # 187 ; . Whereas for illustration in Russian compounds the roots are bound morphemes, as a regulation.
B ) English compounds have a two-stem form, with the exclusion of compound words which have form-word roots in their construction, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and-doing etc. The two-stem form distinguishes English compounds from German 1s.
WAYS OF FORMING COMPOUND WORDS.
Compound words in English can be formed non merely by agencies of composing but besides by agencies of:
a ) anadiplosis, e.g. too-too, and besides by agencies of reduplicatin combined with sound interchange, e.g. rope-ripe,
B ) transition from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, make-up etc,
degree Celsius ) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc,
vitamin D ) analogy, e.g. lie-in ( on the analogy with sit-in ) and besides phone-in, brawn-drain ( on the analogy with brain-drain ) etc.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS
1. Harmonizing to the parts of address compounds are subdivided into:
a ) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter,
B ) adjectives, such as: free-for-all, power-happy,
degree Celsius ) verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,
vitamin D ) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,
vitamin E ) prepositions, such as: into, within,
degree Fahrenheit ) numbers, such as: 55.
2. Harmonizing to the manner constituents are joined together compounds are divided into:
a ) neutral, which are formed by fall ining together two roots without any connection morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop,
B ) morphological where constituents are joined by a linking component: vowels & # 171 ; o & # 187 ; or & # 171 ; I & # 187 ; or the harmonic & # 171 ; s & # 187 ; , e.g. { & # 171 ; astrospace & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; handcraft & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; sportswoman & # 187 ; ) ,
degree Celsius ) syntactical where the constituents are joined by agencies of form-word roots, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all. , desperate.
3. Harmonizing to their construction compounds are subdivided into:
a ) compound words proper which consist of two roots, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top,
B ) derivational compounds, where besides the root we have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer,
degree Celsius ) compound words dwelling of three or more roots, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter,
vitamin D ) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford.
4. Harmonizing to the dealingss between the constituents compound words are subdivided into:
a ) subordinative compounds where one of the constituents is the semantic and the structural Centre and the 2nd constituent is low-level ; these subordinating dealingss can be different:
with comparative dealingss, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with confining dealingss, e.g. breast-high, ankle-deep, with emphasized dealingss, e.g. dog-cheap, with nonsubjective dealingss, e.g. gold-rich, with cause dealingss, e.g. love-sick, with infinite dealingss, e.g. top-heavy, with clip dealingss, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective dealingss, e.g. foot-sore etc
B ) coordinative compounds where both constituents are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one individual ( object ) has two maps, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called linear. This group includes besides compounds formed by agencies of anadiplosis, e.g. even, no-no, and besides compounds formed with the aid of rhythmic roots ( anadiplosis combined with sound interchange ) e.g. criss-cross, walky-talky.
5. Harmonizing to the order of the constituents compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe.
CONVERSION CONVERSION
Conversion is a characteristic characteristic of the English word-building system. It is besides called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term & # 171 ; transition & # 187 ; foremost appeared in the book by Henry Sweet & # 171 ; New English Grammar & # 187 ; in 1891. Conversion is treated otherwise by different scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smirntitsky treats transition as a morphological manner of organizing words when one portion of address is formed from another portion of address by altering its paradigm, e.g. to organize the verb & # 171 ; to dial & # 187 ; from the noun & # 171 ; dial & # 187 ; we change the paradigm of the noun ( a dial, dials ) for the paradigm of a regular verb ( I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing ) . A. Marchand in his book & # 171 ; The Categories and Types of Present-day English & # 187 ; dainties conversion as a morphological-syntactical word-building because we have non merely the alteration of the paradigm, but besides the alteration of the syntactic map, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. ( The noun & # 171 ; paper & # 187 ; is an object in the sentence ) . I paper my room every twelvemonth. ( The verb & # 171 ; paper & # 187 ; is the predicate in the sentence ) .
Conversion is the chief manner of organizing verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different significances because of that, e.g.
a ) verbs have instrumental significance if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human organic structure e.g. to oculus, to thumb, to elbow, to shoulder etc. They have instrumental significance if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, arms, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to plunder, to nail,
B ) verbs can denote an action feature of the life being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to herd, to wolf, to ape,
degree Celsius ) verbs can denote acquisition, add-on or want if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to angle, to dust, to skin, to paper,
vitamin D ) verbs can denote an action performed at the topographic point denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket,
vitamin E ) verbs can denote an action performed at the clip denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to week-end.
Verbs can be besides converted from adjectives, in such instances they denote the alteration of the province, e.g. to chasten ( to go or do tame ) , to clean, to reduce etc.
Nouns can besides be formed by agencies of transition from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:
a ) blink of an eye of an action e.g. a leap, a move,
B ) procedure or province e.g. slumber, walk,
degree Celsius ) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a aid, a coquette, a nag,
vitamin D ) object or consequence of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a discovery, a purchase,
vitamin E ) topographic point of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a thrust, a halt, a walk.
Many nouns converted from verbs can be used merely in the Remarkable signifier and denote fleeting actions. In such instances we have partial transition. Such deverbal nouns are frequently used with such verbs as: to hold, to acquire, to take etc. , e.g. to hold a attempt, to give a push, to take a swim.
CRITERIA OF SEMANTIC DERIVATION CRITERIA OF SEMANTIC DERIVATION
In instances of transition the job of standards of semantic derivation arises: which of the born-again brace is primary and which is converted from it. The job was foremost analized by prof. A.I. Smirnitsky. Later on P.A. Soboleva developed his thought and worked out the following standards:
1. If the lexical significance of the root morpheme and the lexico-grammatical significance of the root co-occur the word is primary, e.g. in instances pen – to write, father – to beget the nouns are names of an object and a life being. Therefore in the nouns & # 171 ; write & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; father & # 187 ; the lexical significance of the root and the lexico-grammatical significance of the root coincide. The verbs & # 171 ; to write & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; to beget & # 187 ; denote an action, a procedure therefore the lexico-grammatical significances of the roots do non co-occur with the lexical significances of the roots. The verbs have a complex semantic construction and they were converted from nouns.
2. If we compare a born-again brace with a synonymic word brace which was formed by agencies of suffixation we can happen out which of the brace is primary. This standard can be applied merely to nouns converted from verbs, e.g. & # 171 ; chat & # 187 ; n. and & # 171 ; chat & # 187 ; v. can be compared with & # 171 ; conversation & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; converse & # 187 ; .
3. The standard based on derivational dealingss is of more cosmopolitan character. In this instance we must take a word-cluster of comparative words to which the converted brace belongs. If the root root of the word-cluster has suffixes added to a noun root the noun is primary in the born-again brace and vica versa, e.g. in the word-cluster: manus n. , manus v. , ready to hand, handful the derived words have postfixs added to a noun root, that is why the noun is primary and the verb is converted from it. In the word-cluster: dance n. , dance v. , terpsichorean, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the noun is converted from it.
SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES
Some scientists ( Yespersen, Kruisinga ) refer substantivization of adjectives to transition. But most scientists disagree with them because in instances of substantivization of adjectives we have rather different alterations in the linguistic communication. Substantivization is the consequence of eclipsis ( syntactical shortening ) when a word combination with a semantically strong property loses its semantically weak noun ( adult male, individual etc ) , e.g. & # 171 ; a grown-up individual & # 187 ; is shortened to & # 171 ; a grown-up & # 187 ; . In instances of perfect substantivization the property takes the paradigm of a denumerable noun, e.g. a condemnable, felons, a condemnable & # 8217 ; s ( error ) , felons & # 8217 ; ( errors ) . Such words are used in a sentence in the same map as nouns, e.g. I am fond of musicals. ( musical comedies ) .
There are besides two types of partially substantivized adjectives:
those which have merely the plural signifier and have the significance of corporate nouns, such as: Sweets, intelligence, empties, finals, leafy vegetables,
those which have merely the remarkable signifier and are used with the definite article. They besides have the significance of corporate nouns and denote a category, a nationality, a group of people, e.g. the rich, the English, the dead.
& # 171 ; STONE WALL & # 187 ; COMBINATIONS.
The job whether adjectives can be formed by agencies of transition from nouns is the topic of many treatments. In Modern English there are a batch of word combinations of the type, e.g. monetary value rise, pay freezing, steel helmet, sand palace etc.
If the first constituent of such units is an adjectival converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English ( adjectival + noun ) . This point of position is proved by O. Yespersen by the undermentioned facts:
1. & # 171 ; Stone & # 187 ; denotes some quality of the noun & # 171 ; wall & # 187 ; .
2. & # 171 ; Stone & # 187 ; bases before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the map of an property do in English.
3. & # 171 ; Stone & # 187 ; is used in the Singular though its significance in most instances is plural, and adjectives in English have no plural signifier.
4. There are some instances when the first constituent is used in the Comparative or the Greatest grade, e.g. the bottomest terminal of the graduated table.
5. The first constituent can hold an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs, e.g. a strictly household assemblage.
6. The first constituent can be used in the same syntactical map with a proper adjective to qualify the same noun, e.g. lonely au naturel rock houses.
7. After the first constituent the pronoun & # 171 ; one & # 187 ; can be used alternatively of a noun, e.g. I shall non set on a silk frock, I shall set on a cotton one.
However Henry Sweet and some other scientists say that these standards are non characterisitc of the bulk of such units.
They consider the first constituent of such units to be a noun in the map of an property because in Modern English about all parts of address and even word-groups and sentences can be used in the map of an property, e.g. the so president ( an adverb ) , out-of-the-way vilages ( a word-group ) , a carefree velocity ( a sentence ) .
There are different semantic dealingss between the constituents of & # 171 ; rock wall & # 187 ; combinations. E.I. Chapnik classified them into the undermentioned groups:
1. clip dealingss, e.g. flushing paper,
2. infinite dealingss, e.g. top floor,
3. dealingss between the object and the stuff of which it is made, e.g. steel helmet,
4. cause dealingss, e.g. war orphan,
5. dealingss between a portion and the whole, e.g. a crew member,
6. dealingss between the object and an action, e.g. weaponries production,
7. dealingss between the agent and an action e.g. authorities menace, monetary value rise,
8. dealingss between the object and its appellation, e.g. response hall,
9. the first constituent denotes the caput, organiser of the characterized object, e.g. Clinton authorities, Forsyte household,
10. the first constituent denotes the field of activity of the 2nd constituent, e.g. linguistic communication instructor, psychopathology physician,
11. comparative dealingss, e.g. Moon face,
12. qualitative dealingss, e.g. winter apples.
ABBREVIATION ABBREVIATION
In the procedure of communicating words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be lingual and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes alterations in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the pacing of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible clip.
There are besides lingual causes of abridging words and word-groups, such as the demand of beat, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When adoptions from other linguistic communications are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have alteration of signifier on the footing of analogy, e.g. the Latin adoption & # 171 ; fanaticus & # 187 ; is shortened to & # 171 ; fan & # 187 ; on the analogy with native words: adult male, pan, tan etc.
There are two chief types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
Graphic abbreviations Graphic abbreviations
Graphic abbreviations are the consequence of shortening of words and word-groups merely in written address while orally the corresponding full signifiers are used. They are used for the economic system of infinite and attempt in authorship.
The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin beginning. In Russian this type of abbreviation is non typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full signifier, e.g. for illustration ( Latin exampli gratia ) , ante meridiem – in the forenoon ( ante meridiem ) , No – figure ( numero ) , p.a. – a twelvemonth ( per annum ) , d – penny ( dinarius ) , lb – lb ( Libra ) , i. e. – that is ( id Eastern Time ) etc.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced & # 171 ; in the afternoon & # 187 ; ( post meridiem ) and & # 171 ; after decease & # 187 ; ( post mortem ) .
There are besides graphical abbreviations of native beginning, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full signifier. We have several semantic groups of them:
a ) yearss of the hebdomad, e.g. Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday etc
B ) names of months, e.g. Apr – April, Aug – August etc.
degree Celsius ) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks – Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc
vitamin D ) names of provinces in USA, e.g. Ala – Alabama, Alas – Alaska etc.
vitamin E ) names of reference, e.g. Mr. , Mrs. , Ms. , Dr. etc.
degree Fahrenheit ) military ranks, e.g. capt. -captain, col. – colonel, sgt – sergeant etc.
g ) scientific grades, e.g. B.A. – Bachelor of Humanistic disciplines, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. ( Sometimes in scientific grades we have abbreviations of Latin beginning, e.g. , M.B. – Medicinae Baccalaurus ) .
H ) units of clip, length, weight, e.g. f. / foot -foot/feet, sec. – 2nd, in. -inch, mg. – mg etc.
The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. & # 171 ; m & # 187 ; can be read as: male, married, masculine, meter, stat mi, million, minute, & # 171 ; l.p. & # 187 ; can be read as long-playing, low force per unit area.
Initial abbreviations
Initialisms are the surrounding instance between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the linguistic communication, as a regulation, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full signifiers are used, e.g. J.V. – joint venture. When they are used for some continuance of clip they get the sawed-off signifier of pronouncing and go closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a regulation pronounced in the sawed-off signifier.
In some instances the interlingual rendition of initialisms is following to impossible without utilizing particular lexicons. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very frequently they are expressed in the manner they are pronounced in the linguistic communication of their beginning, e.g. ANZUS ( Australia, New Zealand, United States ) is given in Russian as & # 1040 ; & # 1053 ; & # 1047 ; & # 1059 ; & # 1057 ; , SALT ( Strategic Arms Limitation Talks ) was for a long clip used in Russian as & # 1057 ; & # 1054 ; & # 1051 ; & # 1058 ; , now a interlingual rendition discrepancy is used ( & # 1054 ; & # 1057 ; & # 1042 ; – & # 1044 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1095 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1093 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1081 ; ) . This type of initialisms borrowed into other linguistic communications is preferred, e.g. UFO – & # 1053 ; & # 1051 ; & # 1054 ; , C & # 1055 ; – JV etc.
There are three types of initialisms in English:
a ) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc
B ) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.
degree Celsius ) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound signifier, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS ( Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System ) .
Some scientists unite groups B ) and c ) into one group which they call acronyms.
Some initialisms can organize new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of wordbuilding:
a ) affixation, e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer, ex- POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc.
B ) transition, e.g. to raff, to wing IFR ( Instrument Flight Rules ) ,
degree Celsius ) composing, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc.
vitamin D ) there are besides compound-shortened words where the first constituent is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the 2nd 1 is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. In some instances the first constituent is a complete word and the 2nd constituent is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds ( Three dimensions ) – & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1092 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1084 ; .
Abbreviations of words
Abbreviation of words consists in niping a portion of a word. As a consequence we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical significance or the manner is different signifier the full signifier of the word. In such instances as & # 187 ; phantasy & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; illusion & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; fencing & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; defense mechanism & # 187 ; we have different lexical significances. In such instances as & # 171 ; research lab & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; lab & # 187 ; , we have different manners.
Abbreviation does non alter the part-of-speech significance, as we have it in the instance of transition or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same portion of address as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is besides a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can besides run into abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev from to go around, to tab from to table etc. But largely abbreviated signifiers of verbs are formed by agencies of transition from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are largely used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc. As a
