Scaffolding In Education Essay, Research Paper

Abstraction

The World Wide Web is being seen more and more as an effectual and above all cheap agencies of presenting classs in the third instruction sector. It is of import nevertheless that fiscal jussive moods to non take precedency over educational ends. In the hunt for an effectual attack to Web acquisition, an re-examination of larning theory is required. This paper examines the three wide doctrines of Behaviourism, Cognitive Theory, and Constructivism and reexamine their possible for presenting third instruction via the Web. Problems with the Web are identified, such as the abstract textual nature of current Web engineering, and the hapless interactivity ensuing from limited bandwidth.

One theory, Social Constructivism, positions larning as a procedure of socialization brought about through societal interaction. This paper proposes a matter-of-fact attack to the execution of Social Constructivist attacks. As the Web develops, and environments rich in media and possessing a high degree of interactivity become possible, the demand for Social Constructivist schemes may be reduced. In the average clip, the potency of the Web as a communications medium instead than a mere content supplier must non be ignored.

Education and the Web

The growing of the Internet and the Word Wide Web, in peculiar, are pulling the attending of third educational establishments worldwide. This is manifest in the increasing figure of distance instruction classs being offered in this medium ( University of Texas, 1997 ; Pagram & A ; McMahon, 1997 ) . It is significantly less expensive to bring forth stuffs electronically than in printed signifier, and the stuff may easy be kept up to day of the month ( Eklund, Garrett, Ryan, & A ; Harvey, 1996 ) . These grounds, combined with the cost nest eggs of a & # 8216 ; practical campus & # 8217 ; in existent estate and contact clip for the university, are taking to the Web being seen as an effectual option to traditional face to confront manners of instruction. It has been argued that pupils do non like to larn at a distance ( Simonsen, 1995 ) , but the convenience and flexibleness of an external manner of bringing for those with busy life manners is doing distance instruction an attractive proposition for pupils ( Truman, 1995 ) .

Caution is required to guarantee that these fiscal jussive moods do non rule the push for Web based acquisition. The proliferation of research which finds & # 8220 ; no important consequence & # 8221 ; for engineering still raises concerns ( Russell, 1997 ) . The Web and the Internet itself is, after all, another in a long emanation of engineerings which offer much but whose promise non ever fulfilled ; and the rabid enthusiasm of many Internet advocates is tempered by the wearied cynicism of others. For every Nicholas Negroponte adopting the Internet as & # 8220 ; humankind & # 8217 ; s best opportunity to esteem and foster the most vague linguistic communications and civilizations of the universe & # 8221 ; ( Negroponte, 1996 ) there is a Clifford Stoll, showing the Net as a Chimera of unrealized promise, which really works against literacy and creativeness instead than advancing them ( Stoll, 1995 ) .

There is small uncertainty that the Web is a significantly different medium to CD-ROM based Interactive Multimedia ( IMM ) . While some argue that the Web is going a strong multimedia platform ( Shotsberger, 1996 ) , slow response times frequently make such environments impractical. In kernel, the Web remains true to its initial aim of being a agency of associating paperss across a diverse web ( Berners-Lee, 1989 ) , and this raises concerns over the degree of interactivity and battle that can be supported. While there is no uncertainty that the potency of the Web as a planetary resource of information can hold a strong potency for acquisition, it is deserving being aware of the fact that the Web does non guarantee larning any more than a library on a university campus does ( Reeve, 1996 ) . Any attack to Web based acquisition must be guided by premises of what is to be learned and how larning itself comes approximately.

A Theoretical Approach

I have argued elsewhere for the demand to happen Web larning solutions that are explicitly grounded in theory, since acquisition schemes are informed by specific epistemic premises ( Ring & A ; McMahon, 1997 ) . At the hazard of oversimplifying a complex issue, much acquisition can be defined within the parametric quantities of one or other of the three wide theoretical attacks of Behaviourism, Cognitive Theory, and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

Behaviourism argues that larning takes topographic point through a mechanism of stimulation and response & # 8211 ; a convenient attack since both the stimulation and response are manifest and hence mensurable, and offer an empirical legitimacy to the & # 8217 ; soft & # 8217 ; scientific discipline of instruction. The operant conditioning of Skinner ( 1974 ) , with its focal point on unpleasant and pleasant effects ( support ) as a agency of determining behavior is possibly the best known educational application of behaviorism, and has lead to the development of touchable guidelines for larning schemes such as a focal point on incremental acquisition ( Slavin, 1991 ) and the demand for effects to be intermittent and timely ( Slavin, 1991 ; Langford, 1989 ) .

These dogmas have been quickly adopted into theoretical accounts for instructional design and can easy be adapted to the Web. Skinner himself advocated the usage of learning machines to supply modularised larning based upon concrete behavioral aims ( Kratochwill & A ; Bijou, 1987 ) . Behaviorism does look to be limited, nevertheless, in the types of larning it supports:

The beginning of the diminution in attachment to behaviorism was non that classical conditioning, operant conditioning and imitation do non be but that behaviorists made the error of believing that these three acquisition procedures could explicate all acquisition. ( Langford, 1989, p. 4 )

Since it relies about entirely on discernible behavior and does non account for single idea procedures, the axial rotation of behaviorism in acquisition is needfully limited to the types of larning which can be easy observed such as factual callback, instead than less clearly defined larning which involves internal conceptual alteration within the scholar.

Cognitive Theory

In A Study of Thinking, Bruner ( 1956 ) provided a strong statement for why behavioristic theories have fallen from grace in favor of those that acknowledge the function of the person in interceding acquisition, claiming:

It has resulted from a acknowledgment of the complex processes that mediate between the classical & # 8217 ; stimuli & # 8217 ; and & # 8216 ; responses & # 8217 ; out of which stimulus-response acquisition theories hoped to manner a psychological science that would by-pass anything slap of the & # 8216 ; mental. & # 8217 ; This faultless peripheralism could non last for long. ( p. seven )

More recent developments in apprehension of how the encephalon processes information have become influential to the extent that techniques of encoding and retrieval from memory have become built-in to most theoretical accounts of Instructional Design. Gagn? & # 8217 ; s Events of Instruction ( Gagn? , Briggs & A ; Wager, 1998 ) , for illustration, has a strong focal point oon cognitive facets such as exciting callback of anterior acquisition and heightening learner keeping, every bit good as behaviorist sequences of showing stimulations and arousing public presentation.

Such attacks can be easy supported by the Web. The execution of Common Gateway Interface Forms every bit good as Shockwave ( Macromedia ) and Java ( Sun Microsystems ) applications every bit good as commercial applications available such as Web Test ( University of Waterloo, 1996 ) greatly assist with the development of tutorials and appraisal within such a paradigm However, while the Web in its current signifier is a good bringing medium for finite cognition and can integrate schemes to help encryption and keeping, the ends of cognitive acquisition are frequently broader, and integrate accomplishments such as job resolution and critical thought. It is when these educational results are confronted that the Web becomes badly challenged.

Constructivism

Constructivism goes beyond the survey of how the encephalon shops and retrieves information to analyze the ways in which scholars make intending from experience. Rather than the transmittal of cognition, acquisition is an internal procedure of reading:

Learners do non reassign cognition from the external universe into their memories ; instead, they create readings of the universe based upon their past experiences and their interactions in the universe. How person construes the universe, their existing metaphors, is at least as powerful a factor act uponing what is learned as any feature of that universe ( Cunningham, 1992, p. 36 )

While Constructivism does non needfully deny the being of an nonsubjective world, it does deny the being of an nonsubjective cognition since & # 8220 ; there are many ways to construction the universe, and there are many significances or positions for any event or concept. & # 8221 ; Thus, & # 8220 ; there is non a right significance that we are endeavoring for & # 8221 ; ( Duffy & A ; Jonassen, 1992 ) . It is this rejection of tyranny that characterises constructivist attacks to larn, and it is a extremist ontological going from the old theories discussed.

Most cognitive theory, and the constructivist attacks that have grown out of it, argue that larning should be lasting, movable and self-regulated ( Di Vesta and Rieber, 1987 cited by Hannafin & A ; Rieber, 1989 ) . Mechanisms demand to be in topographic point to advance the deeper internal processing required for such acquisition to happen. The high degree of interaction required for such processing, nevertheless, clearly demands more of the Web than simply being a bringing vehicle for information. While some view the Web itself as a cognitive tool for look intoing and stand foring cognition ( Reeves & A ; Reeves, 1997 ) and as a semantic cognition infinite which will mirror scholars & # 8217 ; ain developing cognitive constructions ( Lambert & A ; Walker, 1996 ) , attempts to make specific Web sites which are constructivist in nature are rare. While high fidelity simulations and microworlds are now common topographic point with CD-ROM based Multimedia, bandwidth issues conspire with the crude nature of HTML to make pages that are normally level and missing in the interactivity required within a constructivist attack.

Social Constructivism

Beyond Cognition

In many respects the Web is an ideal forum for constructivist acquisition, and despite its restrictions, HTML does offer some interesting chances. Hypertext links work by association instead than indexing and it could be argued that this & # 8220 ; free association & # 8221 ; can be disorientating. Yet, the counter statement that it operates much like the manner worlds think ( Gygi, 1990 ) suggests challenging possibilities for the meaningful linking of informations required for the information processing within a cognitive model.

Cognitive Constructivism, as derived from the work of Piaget ( 1977 ) defines larning as a procedure of adjustment, assimilation, and equilibration ( Piaget, 1977 ) . This is a & # 8220 ; dialectic procedure in which the topic resolves disturbances in the coherency of his or her structuring activities by organizing and building new, more equal cognitive constructions & # 8221 ; ( Saxe, 1991 ) . One complementary attack, Cognitive Flexibility Theory ( Spiro, 1995 ) , may be peculiarly enlightening. This theory argues for multiple representations of content where cognition is extremely interrelated and complex ( unsimplified ) ( Archee & A ; Duin, 1995 ) . The potency of the Web to show a assortment of information beginnings may assist to excite the cognitive struggle required within a Piagetian attack. This theory, though, besides calls for cased based reliable acquisition, and does non supply specific schemes for how engagement with the disparate complex information that the Web offers can be ensured.

It is here that Social Constructivism may offer some hope. Pioneered by theoreticians such as Vygotsky ( 1978 ) , this paradigm argues for the importance of civilization and context in organizing apprehension. Learning is non a strictly internal procedure, nor is it a inactive defining of behaviors. Vygotsky favoured a construct of larning as a societal concept which is mediated by linguistic communication via societal discourse.

Social Constructivism and Contextual Learning

While Piaget did history for the societal transmittal of cognition ( Langford, 1989 ) , & # 8220 ; the interplay between societal life and cognitive development procedures was non a nucleus concern & # 8221 ; , his focal point alternatively being on & # 8220 ; the formal belongingss of action without respect for the situatedness of actions in a sociohistorically articulated web of significances & # 8221 ; ( Saxe, 1991, p. 6 ) . Traditional behaviourist/instructivist attacks strive for context independency, whereas a Social Constructivist paradigm positions the context in which the acquisition occurs every bit cardinal to the larning itself.

Underliing the impression of the scholar as an active processor is & # 8220 ; the premise that there is no 1 set of generalised larning Torahs with each jurisprudence using to all spheres & # 8221 ; ( Di Vesta, 1987, p. 208 ) . Decontextualised cognition does non give us the accomplishments to use our apprehensions to reliable undertakings because & # 8220 ; we are non working with the construct in the complex environment, sing ( researching, measuring ) the complex interrelatednesss in that environment that find how and when the construct is used & # 8221 ; ( Duffy & A ; Jonassen, 1992 ) . One Social Constructivist impression is that of reliable or & # 8220 ; situated acquisition & # 8221 ; , where the pupil takes portion in activities which are straight relevant to the application of acquisition and which take topographic point within a civilization similar to the applied scene ( Brown, Collins, & A ; Duguid, 1989 ) . Cognitive Apprenticeship has been proposed as an effectual constructivist theoretical account of larning which attempts to & # 8220 ; enculturate pupils into reliable patterns through activity and societal interaction in a manner similar to that apparent & # 8212 ; and obviously successful & # 8212 ; in trade apprenticeship & # 8221 ; ( Ackerman, 1996, p. 25 ) .

Reeves claims that & # 8220 ; most bing illustrations of WBI [ Web Based Instruction ] employ academic undertakings, but WBI can be designed to concentrate on reliable undertakings relevant to scholars & # 8221 ; ( Reeves & A ; Reeves, 1997 ) . Yet this averment is yet to be demonstrated with research and bing illustrations on the Web. Some sites, such as Virginia University & # 8217 ; s Interactive Frog Dissection ( Kinzie, 1994 ) , use picture to supply realistic representations of content, but interactivity is limited to & # 8220 ; hot spots & # 8221 ; which judge responses and dictate pilotage through the tutorial. Besides, picture is slow to download and does non account for reliable activity instead than simply reliable representation.

In extremely concrete cognition spheres this is a really existent job. A trade such as Plumbing, for illustration, requires accomplishments which involve passage on a physical environment. The trouble the Web has in making such reliable simulations appears to restrict its capacity to suit this. Even more ill-structured academic

countries such as History and Philosophy require a degree of context, even if that context is the academic one necessitating the execution of a culturally specific methodological analysis and usage of linguistic communication. It is here, possibly, that a Social Constructivist attack may be peculiarly utile. It could be argued that the usage of the Web is best suited to that of a communications medium for collaborative attacks to larning instead than as a “24 hr a twenty-four hours glorified whiteboard” ( Archee & Duin, 1995 ) . Such a usage would affect a high degree of societal instead than physical interaction ; an facet good supported by the Web and built-in to a Social Constructivist attack.

Social Interaction and Learning

Traveling so far as to reject the & # 8216 ; botanical & # 8217 ; and & # 8216 ; zoological & # 8217 ; theoretical accounts of physiologists such as Piaget that see ripening as a inactive biologically fixed procedure, Vygotsky favoured of a construct of larning as a societal concept which is mediated by linguistic communication via societal discourse. In our complex usage of linguistic communication, worlds are alone and it has become the primary enabling tool of acquisition:

The most important minute in the class of rational development, which gives birth to the strictly human signifiers of practical and abstract intelligence, occurs when address and practical activity, two antecedently wholly independent lines of development, converge. ( Vygotsky, 1978, p. 24 )

Language and communicating become the principle focal point, and if one is to believe the claim that & # 8220 ; throughout most of their lives people learn and work collaboratively, non separately & # 8221 ; ( Resnick, 1988, cited by Brown et Al, 1989 ) , so a model based upon co-operative acquisition and societal dialogue may be utile. While such an attack does non deny a Piagetian position, it besides contains a major strength in that it can assist to organize acquisition is appropriate to the civilization in which it is to be implemented ( Tudge, 1990 ) .

Laurillard emphasises larning as an iterative procedure, affecting dianoetic, adaptative, synergistic, and automatic qualities, the chief focal point being on teacher-student relationship since & # 8220 ; academic cognition consists in descriptions of the universe, and hence comes to be known through a dianoetic interaction between instructor and pupil & # 8221 ; ( Laurillard, 1993, p. 89 ) . Other surveies, excessively, argue for the importance of mentoring in the procedure of acquisition ( Archee & A ; Duin, 1995 ; Brown et al. , 1989 ) .

Most Social Constructivist theoretical accounts, such as that proposed by Jonassen ( 1994 ) , nevertheless, besides stress the demand for coaction among scholars, in direct contradiction to traditional competitory attacks. One Vygotskian impression, that has important deductions for equal coaction, is that of the & # 8216 ; Zone of Proximal Development. & # 8217 ; Defined as & # 8220 ; the distance between the existent developmental degree as determined by independent job resolution and the degree of possible development as determined through job work outing under grownup counsel or in coaction with more capable equals & # 8221 ; ( Vygotsky, 1978 ) , it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget & # 8217 ; s phases of development. Through a procedure of & # 8217 ; scaffolding & # 8217 ; a scholar can be extended beyond the restrictions of physical ripening to the extent that the & # 8220 ; the development procedure slowdowns behind the larning procedure & # 8221 ; ( Vygotsky, 1978 ) .

This has important deductions for the Web as a communications medium. While it may non be extremely synergistic in a physical sense, the Web has strong potency for societal interactivity. The end of this type of attack is the accomplishment of & # 8216 ; practical communities & # 8217 ; of scholars on the Internet working in little collaborative groups to accomplish a common end ( Dillenbourg & A ; Schneider, 1995 ) . While it would look that attention is necessary in the formation of such groups, it has been proposed that heterogeneous grouping can help in the creative activity of zones of proximal development ( Walker & A ; Lambert, 1996 ) .

Traditional Internet communicating tools such as E-mail, Newsgroups, Internet Relay Chat, and MOOs offer both the rapid synchronal communicating of normal address every bit good as asynchronous interaction which may assist to advance a more brooding metacongitive attack. With the usage of Web browser circuit boards and waiter package such as Ichat, such installations are now going available in a more cohesive signifier on the Web. Examples of larning through communicating can be seen in commercial environments such as TopClass ( WBT Systems, 1997 ) which have no existent content but provide the functionality required for real-time communicating and collaborative acquisition.

The Need for Pragmatism

It would be convenient to see Social Constructivism as a individual solution to the restrictions of the Web, but no one theoretical attack is likely to accomplish the wide scope of educational results required from third survey. Both Cognitive Theory and Constructivism are non without their critics, who are frequently cursing in their observations of what are, after all, doctrines much less unfastened to the strict scientific proving inherent in a behaviorist paradigm. Epistemologically, the relativism of Constructivism is peculiarly combative. Constructivism focuses on the single reading of a sensed external world, and it has been claimed that & # 8220 ; single apprehension and conceptualization is parasitic upon this extra-individual scientific sphere & # 8221 ; , taking to the unfavorable judgment that Constructivism is & # 8220 ; old unpalatable, empiricist vino in a new bottle & # 8221 ; ( Matthews, 1992 )

One of the most touchable unfavorable judgments of Social Constructivism is the type of larning it supports. While it may be true that societal dialogue is a utile attack to accomplishing consensual apprehension of ill-structured capable affair, even in the & # 8217 ; softest & # 8217 ; topics there is frequently a organic structure of unchallenged cognition. Constructivist schemes are frequently non efficient, ensuing in & # 8220 ; a trial-and-error attack to the public presentation in the existent universe & # 8221 ; ( Merrill, 1997 ) .

Explicit guidelines for the usage of real-time confabs and threaded treatment lists have yet to be developed and there is small uncertainty that the alone properties of online societal interaction will play a big portion in the effectivity of the Web as a collaborative medium. Recent experiences with the usage of Listservs at Edith Cowan University have produced assorted consequences. When a clear construction through prescribed activities is given to the interaction which takes topographic point, pupils have anecdotally expressed positive results from the experience. The uncomfortableness which some pupils ab initio experience in posting their thoughts to the & # 8216 ; ether & # 8217 ; of internet, every bit good as low engagement rates where societal interaction is seen as an adjunct instead than an built-in constituent of survey, nevertheless, suggest more research in this country is needed.

Finally, it must be noted that the Web, and Internet in general are likely to alter significantly in approaching old ages. Increasing bandwidth and treating power will do activities such as picture conferencing and existent clip ocular use of informations across big distances a world. This will doubtless impact greatly on online educational pattern. In the average clip, nevertheless, where the ends of direction are broader than can be easy accounted within traditional attacks, it may be that instructional schemes informed by a Social Constructivist paradigm can assist to decrease the insufficiencies for extremely synergistic authentic acquisition which are manifest in the Web in its current signifier.

Mentions

Ackerman, E. ( 1996 ) . Perspective Taking and Object Construction: Two Keys to Learning. In Y. Kafai & A ; M. Resnick ( Eds. ) , Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking, and Learning in a Digital World ( pp. 25-35 ) . New Jersey: Lawrence Earbaum Associates.

Archee, R. , & A ; Duin, A. H. ( 1995, ) . The WWW and Distance Education & # 8211 ; Convergence or Cacophony? Paper presented at the AUUG & # 8216 ; 95 & A ; Asia-Pacific WWW & # 8216 ; 95 Conference and Exhibition, Sydney, Australia.

Barker, P. ( 1994 ) . Planing Synergistic Learning, in T. de Jong & A ; L. Sarti ( Eds ) , Design and Production of Multimedia and Simulation-based Learning Material. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Berners-Lee, T ( 1989 ) . The Original Proposal of the WWW, HTMLized. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html

Brown, J. S. , Collins, A. , & A ; Duguid, P. ( 1989 ) . Situated knowledge and the civilization of larning. Educational Researcher, 18 ( 1 ) , 32-41.

Cunningham, D. J. ( 1992 ) . Measuring Constructions and Constructing Appraisals: A Dialogue. In T. M. Duffy & A ; D. H. Jonassen ( Eds. ) , Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation ( pp. 36-43 ) . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Di Vesta, F. J. ( 1987 ) . The Cognitive Movement and Education. In J. A. Glover & A ; R. R. Ronning ( Eds. ) , Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology ( pp. 203-233 ) . New York: Plenum Press.

Di Vesta, F. J. ( 1987 ) . The Cognitive Movement and Education. In J. A. Glover & A ; R. R. Ronning ( Eds. ) , Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology ( pp. 203-233 ) . New York: Plenum Press.

Dillenbourg, P. S. , & A ; Schneider, D. ( 1995 ) . Collaborative Learning and the Internet. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/tecfa-research/CMC/iccai95_1.html.

Duffy, T. M. , & A ; Jonassen, D. H. ( 1992 ) . Constructivism: New Implications for Instructional Technology. In T. M. Duffy & A ; D. H. Jonassen ( Eds. ) , Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation ( pp. 1-16 ) . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Eklund, J. , Garrett, P. , Ryan, S. , & A ; Harvey, J. ( 1996 ) . Planing the World Wide Web as an Educational Delivery Medium at the University of Sydney. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //ascilite95.unimelb.edu.au/SMTU/ASCILITE95/abstracts/Eklund2.html.

Gagne, R. M. , Briggs, L. J. , & A ; Wager, W. W. ( 1988 ) . Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart & A ; Winston, Inc.

Gygi, K. ( 1990 ) . Acknowledging the Symptoms of Hypertext & # 8230 ; and What make Do About It. In B. Laurel ( Ed. ) , The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design ( pp. 279-287 ) . Reading: Addison Wesley.

Hannafin, M. J. , & A ; Rieber, L. P. ( 1989 ) . Psychological Foundations of Instructional Design for Emerging Computer-Based Instructional Design: Part 1. Educational Technology Research & A ; Development, 37 ( 2 ) , 91-101.

Ichat Iraqi National Congress, ( 1997 ) . Ichat Iraqi National Congress, home page. [ online ] Available: .http: //www.ichat.com/ .

Jonassen, D. ( 1994 ) . Thinking Technology: Towards a Constructivist Design Model. Educational Technology, ( April, 1994 ) , 34-37.

Lambert, P. E. , & A ; Walker, R. A. ( 1996 ) . Planing Collaborative WWW Learning Environments & # 8211 ; the HENRE Project. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //walkerr.edfac.usyd.edu.au/henresite/apwww/apwww-paper-.html.

Langford, P. ( 1989 ) . The Procedure of Learning. In P. Langford ( Ed. ) , Educational Psychology: An Australian Perspective ( pp. 43-64 ) . Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.

Laurillard, D. ( 1993 ) . Balancing the Media. Journal of Educational Television, 19 ( 2 ) , 81-93.

Matthews, Michael R. ( 1992 ) . Old Wine in New Bottles: A Problem with Constructivist Epistemology. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ed.uiuc.edu/COE/EPS/PES-Yearbook/92_docs/Matthews.HTM.

McNeil, B. J. , Nelson, K. R. ( 1991 ) . Meta-analysis of synergistic picture direction: a 10 twelvemonth reappraisal of achievement effects. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 18 ( 1 ) , 1-6.

Merrill, M. D. ( 1997 ) . Instructional Transaction Theory ( ITT ) : Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.coe.usu.edu/coe/id2/ddc0997.html.

Negroponte, N ( 1996 ) . Pluralistic, non Imperialistic: the thought that the Net is another signifier of Americanisation and a menace to local civilization is absurd. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.obs-europa.de/ops/english/books/nn/bd40396.htm.

Pagram, J. & A ; McMahon, M. ( 1997 ) . WeB-CD: An Synergistic Learning Experience for Distance Education Students Analyzing Synergistic Multimedia. Poster presented at ICCE97 & # 8211 ; International Conference on Computers in Education, Kuching, Malaysia, 2-6 December 1997.

Pavlov, I. V. ( 1960 ) . Conditioned Reflexes: an probe of the physiological activity of the intellectual cerebral mantle. Trans ; G. V. Anrep. New York: Dover Publications.

Piaget, J. ( 1977 ) . The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures. New York: Viking.

Reeves, T. C. ( 1996 ) . Measuring What Really Matters in Computer-Based Education. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.oltc.edu.au/cp/refs/reeves.html.

Reeves, T. C. , & A ; Reeves, P. M. ( 1997 ) . The Effective Dimensions of Interactive Learning on the WWW. In B. H. Khan ( Ed. ) , Web Based Instruction ( pp. 59-66 ) . Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Educational Technology.

Ring, G. & A ; McMahon, M. ( 1997 ) . Web Direction: Searching for a theoretical footing. Paper presented at ICCE97 & # 8211 ; International Conference on Computers in Education, Kuching, Malaysia, 2-6 December 1997.

Saxe, G. B. ( 1991 ) . Culture and Cognitive Development: Surveies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Simonsen, M. ( 1995 ) . Does Anyone Really Want to Learn at a Distance? Techtrends, 40 ( 5 ) , 12.

Sims, R. ( 1996 ) . Interactivity: A Forgotten Art? . [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //intro.base.org/docs/interact/

Skinner, B. F. ( 1974 ) . About Behaviorism. New York: Knopf.

Slavin, R. E. ( 1991 ) . Educational Psychology. ( 3rd ed. ) . Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Truman, B. E. ( 1995 ) . Distance Education in Post Secondary Institutions and Business since 1988. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~btruman/dist-lr.html.

Tudge, J. ( 1990 ) . Vygotsky, the Zone of Proximal Development, and Peer Collaboration: Deductions for Classroom Practice. In L. C. Moll ( Ed. ) , Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Deductions and Applications of Sociohistorical Psychology ( pp. 155-170 ) . New York: Cambridge Universiity Press.

University of Texas ( 1997 ) . World Lecture Hall. [ online ] Available:

University of Waterloo ( 1996 ) . Introducing WebTest for the Web. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //fpg.uwaterloo.ca/WEBTEST/*/

Vygotsky, L. S. ( 1978 ) . In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & A ; E. Souberman ( Eds. ) , Mind in Society. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press.

Walker, R. A. , & A ; Lambert, P. E. ( 1996 ) . Planing Electronic Learning Environments to Support Communities of Learners: A Third Application. [ online ] Available hypertext transfer protocol: //walkerr.edfac.usyd.edu/henresite/aare/AARE-paper-.html

WBT Systems ( 1997 ) . WBT Systems. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wbtsystems.com/

Wild, M. , & A ; Omari, A. ( 1996 ) . Developing Educational Content for the Web: Issues and Ideas. [ online ] Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scu.edu.au/ausweb96/educn/wild/paper.html