The Effects Of Romes Expansion Essay Research

The Effects Of Romes Expansion Essay, Research Paper

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The Effects of Rome? s Expansion

Jonas

Runing Head: ROME? S EXPANSION

Outline

Abstraction

Expansion overseas gave Rome the chance to beef up its imperium by war ; But, as a drawback it resulted in the dislocation of the Republic, every bit good as its Empire.

Expansion Overseas made Rome a mighty imperium for a short period of clip, until both the Empire

and the republic became unstable and finally broke down. Hooker, writer of? Roman History? in 1996 provinces:

Roman history begins in a little small town in cardinal Italy ; this retiring small town would turn into a little city, conquer and command all of Italy, southern Europe, the Middle East, and Egypt, and happen itself, by the start of what no other people had managed before: the ruled the full universe under a individual disposal for a considerable sum of clip. This imperial regulation, which extended from Great Britain to Egypt, from Spain to Mesopotamia, was a period of singular peace. The Romans would look to their imperium as the instrument that brought jurisprudence and justness to the remainder of the universe ; in some sense, the comparative peace and stableness they brought to the universe did back up this position. They were, nevertheless, a military province, and they ruled over this huge district by keeping a strong military presence in capable states. An immensely practical people, the Romans devoted much of their glare to military scheme and engineering, disposal, and jurisprudence, all in support of the huge universe authorities that they built. Rome, nevertheless, was responsible for more than merely military and administrative mastermind. Culturally, the Romans had a little lower status composite in respects to the Greeks, who had begun their city states merely a few centuries before the rise of the Roman Republic. The Romans, nevertheless, derived much of their civilization from the Greeks: art, architecture, doctrine, and even faith. However, the Romans changed much of this civilization, accommodating it to their ain peculiar worldview and practical demands. It is this changed Grecian civilization, which we call Classical civilization, that was handed down to the European civilisations in late antiquity and the Renaissance. Our journey through this singular history begins with the land itself and the assorted peoples that inhabited it. Unlike most of the parts dealt with, Italy was a multicultural landscape that came to be dominated by this little small town, Rome.

Expansion overseas made Rome a mighty Empire during the 200? s and 100? s BC Rome came into struggle foremost with Carthage, a sea power and trading centre on the seashore of northern Africa. Hooker writer of? The Punic War? s? 1996, stated that:

Carthage was the greatest naval power of the Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. The Carthaginians were originally Phoenicians and Carthage was a settlement founded by the Phoenician capital metropolis of Tyre in the 9th century BC ; the word? Carthage? agencies, in Phoenician, ? The New City. ? The Phoenicians, nevertheless, were conquered by the Assyrians in the 6th century BC, and the conquered by the Persians ; an independent Phoenician province would ne’er once more appear in the Middle Ease. Carthage, nevertheless, remained ; it was no longer a settlement, but a to the full functioning independent province. While the Romans were steadily increasing their control over the Italian peninsula, the Carthaginians were widening their imperium over most of North Africa. By the clip that Rome controlled all of the Italian peninsula, Carthage already controlled the North African seashore from western Libya to the Strait of Gibraltar, and ruled over most of southern Spain, and the island of Corsica and Sardinia in Europe every bit good. Carthage was a formidable power ; it controlled about all the commercial trade in the Mediterranean had subjected huge Numberss of people all whom sent soldiers and supplies, and amassed enormous wealth from gold and Ag mines in Spain. These two mighty imperiums came into contact in the center of the 3rd century BC when Rome? s power had reached the southern tip of Italy. The two peoples had been in sporadic contact before, but neither side felt threatened by the others. The Romans were absolutely cognizant of the Punic heritage: they called them by their old name, Phoenicians. In Latin, the word is Phoeni, which gives us the name for the wars between the two stated, the Punic Wars. These struggles, so black for Carthage, were inevitable. Between Carthage and Italy lay the immense island of Sicily ; Cartage controlled the western half of Sicily, but the southern tip of the Italian peninsula put the Romans within throwing distance of the island. When the metropolis of Messana revolted against the Carthaginians, the Romans intervened, and the first Punic War erupted. First Punic War: Boise writer of web page? The Punic Wars? 1996 stated that: Carthage had in the 260? s, control of much of Sicily. This mattered small to Rome, for it had few direct involvements at that place. Thus, when a complicated small difference arose in the metropolis of Messana in 264, and one side appealed

to Carthage while the other appealed to Rome, no 1 thought it was any more than a local wrangle. Messana was a larboard metropolis commanding the Straits and so when a Punic fleet was invited in by one side, Rome felt it had to react in some manner. An expeditionary force caused the Punic ( the Roman word for Carthaginian ) fleet to retreat and that would good hold been that. The Punic admiral? s retreat was ill-received at place, and Carthage responded with a larger force, prising out the Romans. Now the issue was more serious, and Rome responded with a consular ground forces. Again Rome won an easy triumph? so easy, in fact, that the consul decided to press into the inside in hunt of more. The Line of this narrative should be obvious by now. Carthage responded with a still-larger ground forces, approximately 50,000. And Rome answered in sort, winning such speedy triumphs in 262 that they won about the full island. Further triumphs nevertheless, were much harder to win, as it became evident that Rome would hold to win control of the sea if it was to maintain its additions in Sicily. The war, so unthinkingly begun, would last 20 old ages. Neither side had sought a major struggle, but neither side had sought a major struggle, but neither side knew how to retreat one time the issue was joined. This was was fought on a graduated table much larger than Rome had before attempted. The chief conflicts were fought at sea, to back up cardinal besiegings and expeditions, for Carthage was a ace naval power. But land conflicts were fought in Corsica, Sardinia, Africa and Sicily. Both sides on a regular basis kept fleets of 100 to 200 ships and ground forcess of 50,000 to 70,000 in the field for twelvemonth after twelvemonth. Rome made many errors in this war, and suffered awful losingss for it. Romans were non crewmans, and they lost more ships in the war than did Carthage? 600 ships lost over the class of 20 old ages. Every clip Rome won a important triumph, the advantage was frittered away by unqualified generals or a timid Senate. One of the greatest failings of the Republic was that it elected new generals every twelvemonth, a system that served good plenty except in times of drawn-out crises. Rome prevailed at last in 241. Carthage, exhausted more than beaten, sued for peace and accepted rough footings. The metropolis itself, nevertheless, remained unbeaten. And her merchandiser fleets continued to bring forth wealth. Rome imposed a heavy idemnity in Carthage, to counterbalance her for her losingss. She besides forced Carthage to give up all claims to Sicily. Therefore, as the consequence of this war, Rome won an easy income and a new state. It was the first measure in the creative activity if the Roman Empire. Rome besides learned some of import lessons in this war. For one thing, Romans learned

how to do war at sea. It is excessively much to state they learned to be crewmans? even at the terminal of the Republic, they were still engaging Greeks to captain their ships? but they learned how to carry on naval warfare in an eminently Roman manner. The struggle was still non over. And both sides knew it. Second Punic War: The peace pact had put Carthage in an impossible place. Carthage had to contend to recover her place or shrivel off to insignificance, a destiny she would non accept volitionally. Furthermore, Rome continued to be aggressive geting Corsica in the 220s.

Soon after, the consequences of the First Punic War were evident. Boise 1996 stated:

Not long after the terminal of the First Punic War, Carthage acquired a echt hero: Hamilcar Barca. This member of a baronial Punic household conquered much of Spain, geting in the procedure great measures of Spanish bullion, deriving Spanish horse as aides, and hammering in the procedure a field ground forces of great accomplishment and experience. Hamilcar hated Rome and longed to be the adult male who would revenge the shame of the First Punic War. As the old ages went by, nevertheless, he began to recognize it was non fated for him, and taught his boy both his accomplishments in conflict and his hate of Rome. His wickedness? s name was Hannibal. Hamilcar died when Hannibal was still immature adult male. The boy spent some clip covering with the inevitable rebellions, but rapidly established himself as an even greater leader than his gather. Hannibal was, by all histories both antediluvian and modern, a military mastermind. Because he finally was on the losing side, he is besides instead a figure of calamity. When he marched on Rome, at the age of 25, he cast a shadow over the full history of the Roman Republic. Hannibal was determined to contend Rome, a war that he viewed as inevitable. He was concerned to contend at a clip propitious to himself and to Carthage, and he was determined to contend the war on Punic footings. Hannibal? s program was both despairing and superb. Rome? s great strength was her about eternal militias of work force, the consequence of her system of confederations throughout Italy. But those confederations were exploitatory ; Rome? s Alliess were unhappy with their intervention and unhappy with Rome? s apparently eternal wars. So, Hannibal would occupy Italy itself. His ground forces would by itself be fat excessively little to accomplish triumph, but he believed the Italian Alliess were so profoundly ill-affected that he would merely hold to win a few early triumphs and proclaim the autonomy of the Italian Alliess, and they would abandon Rome. Without her allied militias, Rome? s ground forcess could non stand against Hannibal? s superior generalship. Everything depended on those two

elements: early and convincing triumphs and the desertion of the Italian Alliess. Hannibal was chancing everything on these. War came in 218, when a wrangle broke out over the Roman settlement of Saguntum. The Romans believed they could easy incorporate Hannibal in Spain, but he gave the Roman army the faux pas and was across the Pyrenees about before the Romans know what had happened.

The terminal of the Second Punic War: In 202BC Rome? s 2nd war with Carthage came to an terminal. Tome once more forced Carthage to pay a awful monetary value: this clip, Carthage had to give up her full imperium. Spain, the islands, North Africa, her navy, her ground forces, all if it was either gone or drastically reduced. All that was left to her was the metropolis itself, a backwoods of some 30 stat mis, and a miniscule ground forces to protect against desert folk. Carthage was allowed no foreign policy but became a client of Rome. Indeed, a ditch marked the bounds of Punic district, and it was portion of the peace pact that should build up Carthaginians cross that boundary line it automatically ment war with Rome. Hannibal himself went east, out to populate in his native metropolis. He took service with assorted eastern male monarchs, and for some old ages rumours shook Rome that Hannibal was cabaling with this or that king to raise an ground forces and March once more on Italy. When Hannibal eventually died, slightly cryptically, and before this clip, it was believed that he had been poisoned, either at the behest of the Senate or by an eastern male monarch seeking to curry favour with the Senate.

Third Punic War: The Third Punic War was a brief, brassy matter, unworthy of the gallantry if the gallantry of the old struggles. If of all time there was a war that could be called unneeded, this one would measure up. Despite all the punishments and all the hindrances, Carthage recovered economically. Rome had taken away her imperium and the fiscal load that went with it, but had left her free to prosecute trade as she willed. Carthage paid off her war insurance and by the center of the 2nd century, was booming. This did non set good with many Roman senators. Rome had acquired a good trade of fertile land along the seashore of fertile land along the seashore of North Africa, and a figure of senators had invested in olives and grain at that place. But these were goods in which Carthage traded every bit good, and Carthage was instead better at it. A cabal within the Senate, led by Cato the Elder, began to foment against Carthage. Was it right, they asked, that Carthage should thrive while Romans toiled? Was Carthage? s new prosperity non potentially unsafe?

After all, the metropolis had twice troubled Rome. And, in any instance, Carthage was harming Roman mercantile involvements. Cato took the lead in these statements. He was a esteemed solons with a esteemed repute. He was the authoritative virtuous Roman and he didn? T head that others knew it. His public calling was spotless, his matrimony was perfect, his oratory was obliging, his values were conservative, and all in all he got on some people? s nervousnesss. Cato began to press that the lone certain defence against renascent Carthage was to destruct it. Rome would ne’er be safe so long as Carthage stood. He made a run of it: Carthago delenda Eastern Time! ? Carthahe must be destroyed! In the 150s this was Cato? s motto, repeated infinitely. At parties he would convey it up & # 8211 ; Carthago delenda Eastern Time! In the Senate he might be talking on any topic, but ever found a manner to work in his motto: the seaport T Ostia should be expanded? and a Carthage must be destroyed! The assignment of Gaius Gaius to provincial governor should be approved? and Carthage must be destroyed! A ballot of thanks to a loyal tribal captain? and Carthage must be destroyed! In the terminal, Cati got his wish. I might claim that Rome went to war merely to hush the old male child up, but alas Carthage gave Rome all the alibi it needed.

Rome? s Expansion non merely caused the Punic War? s but besides the dislocation of the democracy.

Nardoo 1994, writer of? The Roman Republic? stated that:

Julius Caesar? s sudden decease left a power vacuity in Rome. The Senators who had murdered the dictator assumed that the Senate would rapidly recover its traditional powers and undo the harm to the democracy that Caesar and other power generals had done. But this did non go on. To their surprise, the plotters found small popular support for their violent act. This was partially because Caesar? s two strongest Alliess, Mark Antony, now functioning as consul, and Marcus Lepidus, a powerful general, were still in Rome. They enjoyed the support of both the ground forces and a big figure of citizens, rich and hapless. Caesar had besides left an inheritor, his eighteen-year-old great-nephew Gaius Octavius, known as Octavian. The invariably switching machinations, confederations, and power battles among these three work forces would maintain Rome entangled in destructive civil discord for another 15 old ages. Finally, one of them would emerge from the disturbance and restore order, but under a system far different from the 1 that had guided Rome for centuries. The Rise of Octavian: After Caesar? s decease Antony wasted no clip in set uping his authorization. Using the ground forces to

intimidate

the senators, as Caesar had done, Antony kept the senators from revoking any of Caesar? s Torahs. In add-on, he made the senators approve several other Torahs that Caesar had merely late proposed. Then, on the twenty-four hours of Caesar? s funeral, standing before a immense crowd that had come to see the dead leader? s organic structure, Antony delivered a stirring address. Sixteen centuries subsequently the English dramatist William Shakespeare would give Antony the immortal gap words, ? Friends, Romans, countrymen, impart me you? re ears. I come to bury Caesar, non to praise him. ? The wily Antony non merely ended up praising Caesar but besides revealed to the crowd the contents of Caesar? s will. The dictator had left his private gardens as a public park and besides granted a little amount of money to every Roman citizen. The remainder of his luck Caesar had left to Octavian, whom he had late adopted as his son.. Antony went on to indicate out all the great workss Caesar had accomplished for Rome and reminded the people that they had one time proudly supported him. Fearing for their lives, the plotters fled the metropolis. It now seemed that Antony was almighty in Rome. But his outlook of taking Caesar? s castle was ephemeral. When Octavian arrived to roll up his heritage, Antony who was managing Caesar? s will, refused to manus over the money. Antony assumed that the instead sallow young person was weak and could easy be manipulated. But he had wholly underestimated Octavian. The immature adult male instantly raided a little ground forces composed of Caesar? s veterans and joined forces with Cicero, who wanted to maintain Antony from going a dictator like Caesar. In 43 BC it was Antony who had to fly Rome. With Antony out of the manner, Octavian now 19, demanded the office of consul. But Cicero and his fellow senators refused. They had merely been utilizing Octavian to acquire rid of Antony and had no purpose of allowing him keep such a powerful station. But they excessively, had underestimated Octavian? s abilities. He fleetly marched his ground forces into Rome, and the surprised senators had no pick but to do him consul. Antony Bewitched: With Octavian the supreme power in the West and Antony in charge of the easiness, a clang between the two ambitious work forces was inevitable. To warrant the civil war he desires with Antony, Octavian charged Antony of fiddling his responsibilities and hesitating in his commitment to Rome as a consequence of being led astray by Egypt? s queen, Cleopatra. To some grade, this charge was true. Antony had first met Cleopatra in 41 BC when she paid him a visit in Cilicia in southern Asia Minor. The two became ill-famed lovers, and in the old ages that followed Antony spent much of his clip in Egypt sing Cleopatra. He often adopted Egyptian wonts and frock and of 10 did pretermit his responsibilities. Octavian took full advantage of the state of affairs, converting the Roman people that Cleopatra wanted to be queen of Rome and that Antony planned to prehend the imperium for her. Though these narratives were exaggerated, some grounds suggests that Cleopatra. In the autumn of 33BC Octavian eventually felt the clip was right and declared war on Antony. Once more, Roman would be forced to contend Roman. Defeat and Suicide: The new civil was consisted mostly of a individual conflict. Antony and Cleopatra managed to raise 90 thousand military personnels and five hundred ships, with which they intended to occupy Italy. These forces spent the winter of 32-31 BC in southern Greece. In the spring of 31BC Octavian, aided by skilled general named Agrippa, approached Greece with land and sea forces somewhat smaller than Antony? s. In the Bay of Actium on the western seashore of Greece, the fleets met in a great conflict in which many ships burned and 1000s on both sides lost their lives. From Octavian to Agugustus: At the age of 32 Octavian had triumphed over all antagonists and emerged as the exclusive power in Rome and its huge imperium. In 29BC he returned to Rome, where he enjoyed a munificent three-day triumph jubilation. Soon subsequently he imposed a new authorities on Rome. On the surface it appeared similar to the old system. There were still the Senate, the tribunals, the assemblies, and assorted public functionaries, and Octavian allowed these to transport on most of the normal concern of province. But, in world, the republic no longer existed, because the authorities was no longer in the custodies of the people. Octavian still controlled the ground forcess. Though he sagely did non utilize his military power openly to endanger the authorities, as his predecessors had, he was in a really existent sense a military dictator, and everyone know it. He besides exercised his ain direct regulation over Egypt, every bit good as Gaul and many other states, therefore restricting the administrative powers of the authorities chiefly to Italy. In add-on, Octavian skilfully maneuvered the Senate into allowing him a figure of of import powers. He held authorization similar to that of a consul or tribune, so he could both suggest a veto and jurisprudence or policy he desired. He besides reserved the rights to do war or peace without holding to confer with the Senate, to name meetings of that organic structure, and to put up many of the campaigners for office voted on in the assemblies. In these and other ways, Octavian assumed dictatorial powers while sagely avoiding rubrics like dictator or male monarch, which he realized the Roman people had come to

despise and misgiving. He chose alternatively to project the benevolent image of savior and defender of the people. In 27BC he took the rubric of Imperator Caesar Agustus, ? The Great Victor and Ruler. ? But Octavian himself ne’er used the rubric of emperor, preferring to be called either Augustus or princeps, intending? first citizen? . Whatever he chose to name himself at the clip, he was in fact the first in a long line of Roman Emperors. Get downing with his reign, Rome and its states became known as the Roman Empire. Agustus enjoyed a long, successful, and peaceable reign. After more than a century of bloodshed, power battles, and civil discord, the Roman people were grateful for the order and stableness he brought. In clip, most people remembered the yearss of the democracy as a clip of problems and pandemonium and the thought of reconstructing it steadily died out. Though the system that had brought Rome power and prestigiousness for five hundred old ages was gone, Rome? s yearss of glorification were non over. The Romans were shiping on a new epoch of achievements that would deeply impact the many lands and peoples they would meet and thereby aid to determine the following two thousand old ages of universe history.

As a consequence of the Republic falling, the imperium grew but for merely a short period of clip. Hooker R, 1996 writer of? Rome the Late Empire? stated that:

While people like to speak about the? diminution? of the? autumn? of Rome, no such thing truly happened. Although Rome underwent several dazes in the 4th and 5th centuries, some of them violent with a transportation of the imperiate to non-Romans, Rome truly did stay in being. It? s impossible to state when the history of Rome with the premise of the imperiate by aliens. But the imperium truly does stop, for all practical intents, with the restructing of the imperium by Diocletian. Diocletian ( 284-305 ) came to the throne after a century of disorganisation, internal dissent, economic prostration, and foreign scratchs. A tough and practical soldier he had one aspiration: to retire from the imperiate alive. And he managed to make it ( an exceeding effort ) . To stem the descent into pandemonium, he decided that the Empire was excessively big to be administered by a cardinal authorization, so he divided it in half. A co-worker, Maximian would govern the western half, and the place of authorities was in Nicomedia. Maxima recognized Diocletain as? Agustus? , or the senior swayer of the Roman emperor. Beneath these two were appointed to each two functionaries, called Caesars, no merely to assist pull off the disposal, but to presume their several imperiums on the

decease of the emperor. In this manner, the sequence was ever guaranteed and the replacements had already spent much of their calling administrating the imperium. This would forestall both the possibility of the ambitious seizing of the imperiate by provincial generals and would forestall incompetency from presuming control of the Empire. This was a superb scheme and, with other inventions, stabilized the Empire. Diocletian was the first emperor to obviously interrupt with Roman tradition. He shifted the place of power to the E, on Nicomedia in Turkey. He besides adopted eastern thoughts of monarchy ; he no longer called himself princeps or even imperator, but dominie, or? Lord. ? He took a Crown and wore royal vesture ; he demanded and got out and out worship by his topics. In 305, Diocletian retired to farm to raise chous ; he forced Maxmiam besides to retire. So the imperiate passed without dither to their two Caesars. This superb system, so promising in its origin, fell apart instantly as the two emperors began feuding. Within a twelvemonth, the wickedness of one of the original Caesars gained the throne: Constantine ( 396-337 ) . Like Diocletian, he ruled merely half of the Roman Empire, the western half. But in 324, he abandoned the system and ruled over a individual, united imperium. However, he shifted the place of authorities E to his ain metropolis in Turkey, Constantinople. Constantine was like Diocletian his fondness for eastern ways of life and eastern positions of monarchy. He took on himself all the furnishings of an eastern male monarch, as Diocletian had done, and declared the imperiate to be familial. After eight hundred old ages without a sovereign, Rome had eventually returned back to monarchy. Constantine, nevertheless, is one of the most celebrated swayers in Rome for he was the first emperor to change over to Christianity. Although he didn? Ts make Christian religion a province faith, his transition provoked a wild proliferation of the religion, peculiarly in the Eastern Empire. Constantine, nevertheless ne’er truly became a Christian swayer. He retained all the furnishings of power including the demand that he be venerated as a God, as Diocletian had done. Constantine, nevertheless, had several jobs with his new religion. The first was that there was no established philosophy. In fact, there were as many signifiers of Christianity as there were communities of Christians. The 2nd was more urgent, for foundational Christianity was obviously anti-political. Its laminitis, Jesus of Nazareth, systematically condemned worldly authorization and insisted that the Christian besieging is a non-worldly, individualistic, non-political life. As a consequence, the foundational Christian texts are non merely anti-Roman, but

systematically dismissive of human secular authorization. If Christianity were traveling to work as a faith in a province ruled but a sovereign that demanded worship and absolute authorization, it would hold to be changed. To this terminal, Constantine convened a group of Christian bishops at Nicea in 325 ; at that place, the basic orthodoxy of Christianity was instantiated in what came to be called the Nicene Creed, the basic statement of belief for Orthodox Christianity. Constantine accomplished more, nevertheless, for the Nicene council besides ratified his ain power and Christianity would get down the long battle, enduring to this twenty-four hours, between the anti-political thoughts of Jesus of Nazareth and the Christianity that is compromised to let for human authorization and power. When Constantine died, he divided the Empire between his three boies who, as you might anticipate, began contending one another over a complete control of the Empire. His boies all adopted Christianity every bit good, but the emperor, Julian the Apostate ( 361-363 ) , opposed the faith and tried to undo it by disregarding all the Christians from the authorities. He was little excessively late and reigned a small excessively briefly, though, to hold any existent consequence. The authorities of Rome during the 4th century basically traces out a history of dynastic bickers and changeless internal unruliness ; it wasn? T until the terminal of the century, in the regulation of Theodosius ( 379-365 ) , that Rome was once more united under a individual emperor. Theodosius made his grade in history by declaring Christianity the province faith of Rome ; he made all heathen faiths illegal. The Christian Roman State had entered the phase ; nevertheless history was about to dramatically alter the character of Rome. In 410, the Visigoths, a Germanic folk that had migrated into northern Italy under the force per unit area of migrations of the Huns, captured and sacked Rome. From 451 to 453 Rome was overrun by the Hunnish leader, Attila, and eventually, in 476, Odacer deposed the Roman emperor and made himself emperor. Power had passed from the Romans to the savage? s war-chiefs ; the Middle Ages had begun. Rome now passed to two inheritors: Europe in the E and, to the West, the Byzantines, who carried on the authorities construction, the societal construction, the art and the idea of classical Rome and Greece.

In decision, the enlargement of Rome led to the Punic Wars, dislocation of the Republic, and in

the terminal the autumn of the imperium. Although this paper is merely a brief lineation of these events, non all information can be refereed as? new cognition? . Green, E 1994 once more provinces:

Most of our cognition about ancient Rome comes from written records of the Romans. These records include such paperss as jurisprudence codifications, pacts, and edicts of the emperors and the Roman Senate. Other written records are chef-d’oeuvres of Latin literature. In many plants, the writers wrote about events the lived through. Such plants include the letters and addresss of Cicero and the letters of Plane the Younger.

These are merely a few illustrations of where the information stated in this paper came from. In the terminal the moral proves to demo, what goes up must come down.

Mentions

1. Boise, S. ( 1996 ) . ? The Punic Wars? . Internet. ( http: //history.idbsu.edu/westcir/punicwar/01-18.htm ) .

2. Green, E. ( 1994 ) . The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc. Chicago, Ill..

3. Harker, K. ( 1998 ) . ? Carthaginian Wars? . Internet. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.kileenroos.com/1/Punic.html ) .

4. Hooker, R. ( 1996 ) . Rome the Crisis of the Republic? . Internet. ( http: //www-wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CRISIS.HTM ) .

5. Hooker, R. ( 1996 ) . ? Rome History? . Internet. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wsu.edu/~dee/Rome/Late.htm ) .

6. Hooker, R. ( 1996 ) . ? Rome the Late Empire? . Internet. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wsu.edu/~dee/Rome/HISTORY.htm ) .

7. Hooker, R. ( 1996 ) . ? Rome History. Internet. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/PUNICWARS.HTM ) .

8. Kjeilen, T. ( 1999 ) . ? Carthaginian Wars? . Internet. ( http: //I-cias.com/e.o/punic_wr.htm ) .

9. Nardo, D. ( 1994 ) . The Roman Empire. Lucent Books: San Diego, CA..

10. Nardo, D. ( 1994 ) . The Roman Republic. Lucent Books: San Diego, CA..