Table OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; … & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; ..2-4

Chapter I
THE CONTACT OF ENGLISH WITH OTHER LANGUAGES & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; ..5-7

THE CELTIC INFLUENCE THE CELTIC INFLUENCE
THE APPLICATION OF NATIVE WORDS THE APPLICATION OF NATIVE WORDS

Chapter II
THE SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENE: THE VIKING AGE & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; .. & # 8230 ; .8-10

THE SCANDINAVIAN INVASIONS OF ENGLAND THE SCANDINAVIAN INVASIONS OF ENGLAND
THE SETTLEMENT OF THE DANES IN ENGLAND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE DANES IN ENGLAND

Chapter III
THE AMALGAMATION OF THE TWO RACES… … … … … … … … … … … … … … 11-13

THE RELATION OF THE TWO LANGUAGES THE RELATION OF THE TWO LANGUAGES
THE TESTS OF BORROWED WORDS THE TESTS OF BORROWED WORDS

Chapter IV
THE SCANDINAVIAN PLACE NAMES & # 8230 ; … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 14-16

THE EARLIEST BORROWING THE EARLIEST Borrowing
SCANDINAVIAN LOAN-WORDS AND THEIR CHARACTER SCANDINAVIAN LOAN-WORDS AND THEIR CHARACTER

Chapter V
CELTIC PLACE & # 8211 ; NAMES & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; . & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; … & # 8230 ; .. & # 8230 ; 17-19

CELTIC LOAN-WORDS CELTIC LOAN-WORDS
THE RELATION OF BORROWED AND NATIVE WORDS THE RELATION OF BORROWED AND NATIVE WORDS

Chapter VI
FORM WORDS & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; . & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; . & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; 20-22

SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE OUTSIDE THE STANDARD SPEECH SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE OUTSIDE THE STANDARD SPEECH
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

CONCLUSION & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; . & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; 23-28

BIBLIOGRAPHY & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; . & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; .. & # 8230 ; & # 8230 ; 29

Introduction

The kernel of history is alteration taking topographic point in clip. Anything which endures in clip has a history, because in this universe of flux anything which endures in clip suffers change. But if history is to be meaningful, there must besides be continuity. A people, a state, or a linguistic communication may alter over a long period so greatly as to go something immensely different from what it was at the beginning. But this great alteration is the accretion of many little alterations. At any phase in its history, the people, na & # 173 ; tion, or linguistic communication is basically the same entity that it was in the instantly preceding phase, albeit changed in item. It has preserved its individuality.

The saving of individuality through continuity of alteration, so, characterizes things which have a history. It is easier to see this in the instance of concrete objects, like the Great Pyramid or Keats ‘s Greek urn. Their continuity is physical ; the existent material of which they are made has endured through centuries. Their history is chiefly what has happened to them and around them ; the alteration they have suffered has chiefly been alteration of environ & # 173 ; ment, instead than alteration of their ain nature. Indeed, what fas & # 173 ; cinated Keats about the urn was its placid unchanging cape in the thick of altering coevalss of work forces. Its history is wholly what can be called “ outer history. ”

Harmonizing to the Bible: & # 8217 ; In the beginning was the Word & # 8217 ; . By the Talmud: & # 8216 ; God created the universe by a Word, outright, without labor or pains & # 8217 ; . But I think whatever more mystical significance these pieces of Bible might hold, they both point to the primacy of linguistic communication in the manner human existences conceive of the universe.

I agree with the theory that linguistic communication figures centrally in our lives. I think we discover our individuality as persons and societal existences when we get it during childhood. It serves as a agency of knowledge and communicating: it enables us to believe for ourselves and to collaborate with people in our community. It provides for present demands and future programs, and at the same clip carries with it the feeling of things past.

I want note in passing, by the way, that it is speech that the monster can non get the hang. Whether this necessarily implies that linguistic communication is besides beyond his range is another affair, for linguistic communication does non depend on address as the lone physical medium for its look. Auden may non connote such a differentiation in these lines, but it is one which, as we shall see soon, it is of import to acknowledge.

It has been suggested that linguistic communication is so uniquely human, distinguishes us so clearly from monsters and other animate beings, that our species might be more suitably named gay loquens than gay sapiens. But although linguistic communication is clearly indispensable to humankind and has served to widen control over other parts of creative activity, it is non easy to stipulate what precisely makes it typical. If, so, it is typical. After all, other species communicate after a manner, for they could non otherwise mate, propagate, and cooperate in their settlements.

English belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group within the western subdivision of the Germanic linguistic communications, a sub-family of the Indo-germanic linguistic communications. It is related most closely to the Frisian linguistic communication, to a lesser extent to Netherlandic ( Dutch-Flemish ) and the Low German ( Plattdeutsch ) dialects, and more distantly to Modern High German. Its parent, Proto-Indo-European, was spoken around 5,000 old ages ago by nomads who are thought to hold roamed the _outh-east European fields. Three chief phases are normally recognized in the history of the development of the English linguistic communication. Old English, known once as Anglo-Saxon, dates from AD 449 to 1066 or 1100. Middle English day of the months from 1066 or 1100 to 1450 or 1500. Modern English day of the months from about 1450 or 1500 and is subdivided into Early Modern English, from about 1500 to 1660, and Late Modern English, from about 1660 to the present clip.

The long-run lingual consequence of the Viking colonies in England was threefold: over a 1000 words finally became portion of Standard English ; a big figure of topographic points in the E and north-east of England have Danish names ; and many English personal names are of Norse beginning. Wordss that entered the English linguistic communication by this path include landing, mark, beck, fellow, take, breaking
, and helmsman
The huge bulk of loan words do non get down to look in paperss until the early 12th century ; these include many modern words which use sk-
sounds, such as skirt, sky,
and tegument
; other words looking in written beginnings at this clip include once more, awkward, birth, bar, settlings, fog, lentigos, pant, jurisprudence, cervix, ransack, root, frown, sister, place, sly, smiling, want, weak
, and window
. Some of the words that came into usage by this path are among the most common in English, such as both, same, acquire
, and give
. The system of personal pronouns was affected, with they, them
, and their
replacing the earlier signifiers. Old Norse even influenced the verb to be
; the replacing of sindon
by is
about surely Norse in beginning, as is the third-person-singular stoping -s
in the present tense of verbs.

There are over 1,500 Norse topographic point names in England, chiefly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire ( within the former boundaries of the Danelaw ) : over 600 terminal in -by
, the Norse word for “ farm ” or “ town ” & # 8212 ; for illustration Grimsby, Naseby,
and Whitby
; many others end in -thorpe
( “ small town ” ) , -thwaite
( “ glade ” ) , and -toft
( “ homestead ” )

The distribution of household names demoing Norse influence is still, as an analysis of names stoping in -son
reveals, concentrated in the North and E, matching to countries of former Viking colony. Early medieval records indicate that over 60 % of personal names in Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire showed Norse influence.

The importance of the English linguistic communication is of course really great. English is the linguistic communication non merely of England but of the extended rules and settlements associated in the British Empire, and it is the linguistic communication of the United States. Spoken by over 260 million people, it is in the figure who speak it the largest of the Hesperian linguistic communications. English-speaking people constitute about one ten percent of the universe ‘s population. English, nevertheless, is non the largest linguistic communication in the universe. The more conservative estimations of the population of China would bespeak that Chinese is spoken by about 450 million people. But the numerical dominance of English among European linguistic communications can be seen by a few comparative figures. Russian, following in size to English, is spoken by about 140 million people ; 2 Spanish by 135 1000000s ; German by 90 1000000s ; Portuguese by 63 1000000s ; Gallic by 60 1000000s ; Italian by 50 1000000s. Therefore at the present clip English has the advantage in Numberss over all other western linguistic communications. But the importance of a linguistic communication is non entirely a affair of Numberss or district ; as we have said, it depends besides on the importance of the people who speak it.

Chapter I

The Contact of English with Other Languages

The local area network & # 173 ; guage which has been described in the predating chapter wasnot simply the merchandise of the idioms brought to England by theJutes, Saxons, and Angles. These formed its footing, the exclusive footing ofits grammar and the beginning of by far the largest portion of itsvocabulary. But there were other elements which entered into it.In the class of the first seven hundred old ages of its being in England it was brought into contact with three other linguistic communications, the linguistic communications of the Celts, the Romans, and the Scandinavians.From each of these contacts it shows certain effects, more espe & # 173 ; cially add-ons to its vocabulary. The nature of these contacts and the alterations that were effected by them will organize the bomber & # 173 ; ject of the present chapter.

The Gaelic Influence.
Nothing would look more reasonablethan to anticipate that the conquering of the Celtic population ofBritain by the Teutons and the subsequent mixture of the tworaces should hold resulted in a corresponding mixture of theirlanguages ; that consequently we should happen in the Old Englishvocabulary legion cases of words which the Teutons heardin the address of the native population and adopted. For it isapparent that the Celts were by no agencies exterminated except in certain countries, and that in most of England big Numberss of themwere bit by bit absorbed by the new dwellers. The Anglo-saxon Chronicle studies that at Andredesceaster or Pcvensey adeadly struggle occurred between the native population and the words excessively assorted to acknowledge of profitable categorization, like ground tackle, colter, fan
( for faning ) , fever, topographic point
( californium. market & # 173 ;
topographic point ) , spelter
( asphalt ) , sponge, elephant, Phoenix, mancus
( a coin ) and some more or less erudite or literary words, such as calend, circle, host, giant, consul,
and endowment.
The words cited in these illustrations are largely nouns, but Old English borrowed besides a figure of verbs and adjectives such as & # 226 ; spendan
( to pass ; L. expcndere ) bcmutian
( to exchange ; L. m & # 252 ; tdre ) ,
dihtan
( to com & # 173 ; airs ; L. dictare ) , pinion
( to torment ; L. poena ) , pinsian
( to weigh ; L. pensare ) , pyngan
( to prick ; L. pungere ) , scaltian
( to dance ; X, . saltdre ) , temprian
( to anneal ; L. temper & # 226 ; rhenium ) ,
trifolian
( to crunch ; L. tribul & # 226 ; rhenium ) ,
tyrnan
( to turn ; L. torndre ) ,
and chip ( L. crispus,
curly ) . But adequate has been said to bespeak the extent and assortment of the adoptions from Latin in the early yearss of Christianity in England and to demo how rapidly the linguistic communication reflected the broadened skyline which the English people owed to the church.

The Application of Native
Wordss
The words which Old English borrowed in this period are merely a partial indicant of the extent to which the debut of Christianity affected the lives and ideas of the English people. The English did non ever follow a foreign word to show a new construct. Often an old word was applied to a new thing and by a little version made to show a new significance. The Anglo-saxons, for illustration, did non borrow the Latin word lairs,
since their ain word God
was a satisfactory equivalent. Likewise Eden
and snake pit
express constructs non unknown to Anglo-Saxon pagan religion and are accordingly English words. Patriarch
was rendered literally by heahfasder
( high male parent ) , prophesier
by witega
( wise one ) , sufferer
frequently by the native word browere
( one who suffers hurting ) , and saint by hdlga
( holy one ) . While specific members of the church organisation such as Catholic Pope, bishop,
and priest,
or monastic
and abbot
represented persons for which the English had no equivalent and hence borrowed the Latin footings, they did non borrow a general word for clergy but vised a native look 8set
g & # 226 ; stlice
jolc
( the religious common people ) . The word Easter
is a Germanic word taken over from a heathen festival, like & # 173 ; wise in the spring, in award of Eostre, the goddess of morning. In & # 173 ; position of borrowing the Latin word praedicare
( to prophesy ) the English expressed the thought with words of their ain, such as Ixran
( to learn ) or bodian
( to convey a message ) ; to pray ( L. prec & # 226 ; rhenium )
was rendered by biddan
( to inquire ) and other words of similar significance, supplication by a word from the same root, gebed.
For baptize
( L. baptiz & # 226 ; rhenium )
the English adapted a native word fullian
( to ordain ) while its derivative fulluht
renders the noun baptism.
The latter word enters into legion compounds, such as julluht-baef )
( fount ) , fulwere
( Baptist ) , fulluht-fseder
( bap1
-tizer ) , fulluht-h & # 226 ; vitamin D
( baptismal vow ) , fulluht-nama
( Christian name ) , fulluht-stow
( baptismal font ) , fulluht-tid
( baptism clip ) , and others. Even so single a characteristic of the Christian religion as the sacrament of the Lord ‘s Supper was expressed by the Teutonic word H & # 251 ; Shining Path
( modern housel )
while cubic decimeter & # 226 ; degree Celsiuss,
the general word for forfeit to the Gods, was besides sometimes applied to the Sacrifice of the Mass. The term Scriptures
found its exact equivalent in the English word gewritit,
and evangelium
was rendered by god-
enchantment,
originally intending good newss. Three
( L. trinitas )
was translated seawaters
( three-ness ) , the thought of God the Creator was expressed by scieppend
( one who shapes or signifiers ) , fruma
( Godhead, laminitis ) , or metod
( measurer ) . Native words like degree Fahrenheit
aider
( male parent ) , dryhten
( prince ) , wealdend
( swayer ) , beoden
( prince ) , weard
( ward, defender ) , hldford
( Godhead ) are frequent equivalent word. Most of them are besides applied to Christ,
originally a Grecian word and the most usual name for the Second Person of the Trinity, but U
friend
( Savior ) is besides normally employed. The Third Person ( Spiritus Sanctus ) was translated Halig Cast
( Holy Ghost ) . Latin diabolus
was borrowed as deofol
( Satan ) but we find feond
( monster ) as a common equivalent word. Examples might be multiplied. Cross is rod
( crucifix ) , treow
( tree ) , gcalga
( gallows ) , etc. ; Resurrection is zerist,
from ansan
( to originate ) ; peccatum
is synn
( wickedness ) , while other words like m & # 226 ; Ns, firen, leaJ & # 305 ; tor,
woh,
and scyld,
intending ‘vice ‘ , ‘crime ‘ , ‘fault ‘ , and the similar, are normally substituted. The Judgment Day is Doomsday.
Many of these words are interlingual renditions of their Latin equivalents and their verve is attested by the fact that in a great many instances they have continued in usage down to the present twenty-four hours. It is im & # 173 ; portant to acknowledge that the significance of a foreign influence is non to be measured merely by the foreign word ‘s introduced but is revealed besides by the extent to which it stimulates the linguistic communication to independent originative attempt and causes it to do full usage of its native resources.

Chapter II

The Norse Influence: The Viking Age.

The terminal of the Old English period English underwent a 3rd foreign influence, the consequence of contact with another of import linguistic communication, the Scandinavian. In the class of history it is non unusual to witness the spectacle of a state or people, through causes excessively distant or complex for analysis, all of a sudden emerging from ob & # 173 ; scurity, playing for a clip a conspicuous, frequently superb, portion, and so, through causes every bit hard to specify, lessening one time more into a comparatively minor domain of activity. Such a phenome & # 173 ; non is presented by the Teutonic dwellers of the Norse Peninsula and Denmark, erstwhile neighbours of the Anglo-Saxons and closely related to them in linguistic communication and blood. For some centuries the Scandinavians had remained softly in their northern place. But in the 8th century a alteration, perchance economic, perchance political, occurred in this country and provoked among them a spirit of unrest and adventuresome endeavor. They began a series of onslaughts upon all the lands next to the North Sea and the Baltic. Their activities began in loot and ended in conquering. The Swedes established a land in Russia ; Norwegians colonized parts of the British Isles, the Faroes and Iceland, and from at that place pushed on to Greenland and the seashore of Labrador ; the Danes founded the dukedom of Normandy and eventually conquered England. The pinnacle of their accomplishment was reached in the beginning of the 11th century when Cnut, male monarch of Denmark, obtained the throne of England, conquered Norway, and from his English capital ruled the greater portion of the Norse universe. The make bolding sea-rovers to whom these unusual accomplishments were due are normally known as Vikings,1
and the period of their activity, widening from the center of the 8th century to the beginning of the eleventh, is popularly known as the Viking Age. It was to their onslaughts upon, settle ments in, and ultimate conquering of England that the Norse influence upon Old English was due.

The Norse Invasions of England.
In the Scan & # 173 ; dinavian onslaughts upon England three well-marked phases can be distinguished. The first is the period of early foraies, get downing harmonizing to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 787 and go oning with some intermissions until about 850 The foraies of this period were merely looting onslaughts upon towns and monasteries near the seashore. Sacred vass of gold and Ag, beady shrines, dearly-won robes, valuables of all sorts, and slaves were carried off. Note-Worthy cases are the bagging of Lindisfarne and Jarrow in 793 and 794. But with the pillage of these two celebrated Monday & # 173 ; asteries the onslaughts seemingly ceased for 40 old ages, until re & # 173 ; newed in 834 along the southern seashore and in East Anglia. These early foraies were seemingly the work of little stray sets.

The 2nd phase is the work of big ground forcess and is marked by widespread pillage in all parts of the state and by extended colonies. This new development was inaugurated by the reaching in 1850 of a Danish fleet of 350 ships. Their pirate crews wintered in the isle of Thanet and the undermentioned spring captured Canterbury and London and ravaged the environing state. Although eventually defeated by a West Saxon army they shortly renewed their onslaughts. In 866 a big Danish ground forces plundered East Anglian and in 867 captured York. In 869 the East Anglian male monarch, Edmund, met a barbarous decease in defying the encroachers. The incident made a deep feeling on all England, and the memory of his martyrdom was vividly preserved in English tradition for about two centuries. The eastern portion of England was now mostly in the custodies of the Danes, and they began turning their attending to Wessex. The onslaught upon Wessex began shortly before the accession of King Alfred ( 871-99 ) . Even the illustriousness of this greatest of English male monarchs threatened to turn out insufficient to with & # 173 ; stand the perennial pushs of the Northmen. After seven old ages of opposition, in which impermanent triumphs were constantly suc & # 173 ; ceeded by fresh lickings, Alfred was forced to take safety with a little set of personal followings in the fens of Somerset. Butin this darkest hr for the lucks of the English Alfred ‘s bravery and continuity triumphed. With a fresh levy of work forces from Somerset, Wiltshire, and Hampshire, he all of a sudden attacked the Danish ground forces under Guthrum at Ethandun ( now Edington, in Wiltshire ) . The consequence was an overpowering triumph for the English and a capitulation by the Danes, _ ( 878J.

The Treaty of Wedmore ( near Glastonbury ) , which was signed by Alfred and Guthrum the same twelvemonth, marks the apogee of the 2nd phase in the Danish invasions. Wessex was saved. The Danes withdrew from Alfred ‘s district. But they were non com & # 173 ; pelled to go forth England. The pact simply defined the line, running approximately from Chester to London, to the E of which the aliens were henceforth to stay. This district was to be capable to Danish jurisprudence and is therefore known as the Danelaw. In add-on the Danes agreed to accept Christianity, and Guthrum was baptized. This last proviso was of import. It might procure the better observation of the pact, and, what was more im & # 173 ; portant, it would assist to pave the manner for the ultimate merger of the two groups.

The 3rd phase of the Norse incursions covejrs__the period of political accommodation and assimilation from 878 to 1042. The Treaty of Wedmore did non set an terminal to Alfred ‘s problems. Guthrum was inclined to interrupt religion and there were fresh in & # 173 ; vasions from outside. But the state of affairs easy began to clear. Under Alfred ‘s boy Edward the Elder ( 900-25 ) and grandson Athelstan ( 925-39 ) the English began a series of countermoves that put the Danes on the defensive. One of the superb triumphs of the English in this period was Athelstan ‘s victory in 937 in the conflict of Brunanburh, in Northumbria, over a combined force of Danes and Scots, a triumph celebrated in one of the finest of Old English poems. By the center of the century a big portion of eastern England, though still strongly Danish in blood and usage, was one time more under English regulation.

Toward the terminal of the century, nevertheless, when England seemed at last on the point of work outing its Danish job, a new and formidable sequence of invasions began. In 991 a fleet of 93 ships under Olaf Tryggvason and his associates Suddenly entered the Thames. They were met by Byrhtnoth, the valorous earl of the East Saxons, in a conflict celebrated in another celebrated Old English war verse form, The Battle of Maldon.
Here the English, heroic in licking, lost their leader, and shortly the encroachers were being bribed by big amounts to forbear from loot. The invasions now began to presume an official character. In 994 Olaf, who shortly became male monarch of Norway, was joined by Svein, male monarch of Denmark, in a new onslaught on London. The amounts necessary to purchase off the enemy became greater and greater, lifting in 1012 to the astonishing figure of & # 163 ; ,48,000. In each instance the armistice therefore bought was impermanent, and Danish forces were shortly once more processing over England, slaying and plundering. Finally Svein determined to do himself king of the state. In 1014, supported by his boy Cnut, he crowned a series of triumphs in different parts of England by driving Ethelred, the English male monarch, into expatriate and prehending the throne. Upon his sudden decease the same twelvemonth his boy succeeded him. Three old ages of contending established Cnut ‘s claims to the throne, and for the following 25 old ages England was ruled by Danish male monarchs.

The Settlement of the Danes in England.
The events here quickly summarized had as an of import effect the settee & # 173 ; ment of big Numberss of Scandinavians in England. However impermanent may hold been the stay of many of the attacking parties, particularly those which in the beginning came merely to loot, many persons remained behind when their ships returned place. Often they became lasting colonists in the island. Some indicant of their figure may be had from the fact that more than 1400 topographic points in England bear Norse names. Most of these are of course in the North and E of England, the territory of the Danelaw, for it was here that the bulk of the encroachers settled. Most of the new dwellers were Danes, Al & # 173 ; though there were considerable Norse colonies in the northwest, particularly in what is now Cumberland and Westmore & # 173 ; land, and in a few of the northern counties. The presence of a big Norse component in the population is indicated non simply by place-names but by distinctive features of manorial organ & # 173 ; ization, local authorities, legal process, and the similar. Therefore we have to make non simply with big sets of predators, processing and countermarching across England, transporting adversity and desolation into all parts of the state for upward of two centuries, but with an extended peace-loving colony by husbandmans who intermarried with the English, adopted many of their imposts, and entered into the mundane life of the community. In the territories where such colonies took topographic point conditions were favourable for an extended Norse influence on the English linguistic communication.

Chapter III

The Amalgamation of the Two Races.

The merger of the two races was greatly facilitated by the close affinity that existed between them. The job of the English was non the assimilation of an foreign race stand foring an foreign civilization and talking a entirely foreign lingua. The policy of the English male monarchs in the period when they were re-establishing their control over the Danelaw was to accept as an established fact the assorted population of the territory and to invent a modus vivendi
for its constituent elements. In this attempt they were aided by the natural adaptability of the Scandinavian. Generations of contact with foreign communities, into which their many endeavors had brought them, had made the Scandinavians a cosmopolite people. The feeling derived from a survey of early English establishments is that in malice of certain native imposts which the Danes continued to detect they adapted themselves mostly to the ways of English life. That many of them early accepted Christianity is attested by the big figure of Norse names found non merely among monastics and archimandrites, priests and bishops, but besides among those who gave land to monasteries and endowed churches. It would be a great error to believe of the relation between Anglo-Saxon and Dane, particularly in the 10th century, as uniformly hostile. One must separate, as we have said, between the predatory bands that continued to track the state and the big Numberss that were settled peacefully on the land. Alongside the ruins of English towns & # 8212 ; Symeon of Durham studies that the metropolis of Carlisle remained uninhabited for two hundred old ages after its devastation by the Danes & # 8212 ; there existed of import communities established by the fledglings. They seem to hold grouped themselves at first in concentrated centres, parceling out big piece of lands of land from which the proprietors had fled, and preferring this signifier of colony to excessively disperse a distribution in a unusual land. Among such centres the Five Boroughs & # 8212 ; Lincoln, Stamford, Leicester, Derby, and Nottingham & # 8212 ; became of import focal point
of Norse influence. It was but a inquiry of clip until these big centres and the battalion of smaller communities where the Northmen bit by bit settled were absorbed into the general mass of the English population.

The Relation of the Two Languages.
The relation between the two linguistic communications in the territory settled by the Danes is a affair of illation instead than demand cognition. Doubtless the state of affairs was similar to that discernible in legion parts of the universe today where people talking different linguistic communications arc found living side by side in the same part. While in some topographic points the Scandi & # 173 ; navians gave up their linguistic communication early1
there were surely com & # 173 ; munities in which Danish or Norse remained for some clip the usual linguistic communication. Up until the clip of the Norman Conquest the Norse linguistic communication in England was invariably being renewed by the steady watercourse of trade and conquering. In some parts of Scotland Norse was still spoken every bit tardily as the 17 century. In other territories in which the prevailing address was English there were doubtless many of the fledglings who continued to talk their ain linguistic communication at least every bit tardily as 1100 and a considerable figure who were to a greater or lesser degree bilingual. The last-named circumstance is rendered more likely by the frequent exogamy between the two races and by the similarity between the two linguas. The Anglican idiom resembled the linguistic communication of the Northman in a figure of par & # 173 ; ticulars in which West Saxon showed divergency. The two may even hold been reciprocally apprehensible to a limited extent. Con impermanent statements on the topic are conflicting, and it is hard to get at a strong belief. But wherever the truth lies in this problematic inquiry, there can be no uncertainty that the footing existed for an extended interaction of the two linguistic communications upon each other, and this decision is richly borne out by the big figure of Norse elements later found in English.

The Trials of Borrowed Words.
The similarity between Old English and the linguistic communication of the Norse encroachers makes it at times really hard to make up one’s mind whether a given word in Modern English is a native or a borrowed word. Many of the common man words of the two linguistic communications were indistinguishable, and if we had no Old English literature from the period before the Danish invasions, we should be unable to state that many words were non of Norse beginning. In certain instances, nevertheless, we have really dependable standards by which we can acknowledge a borrowed word. These trials are non such as the layperson can by and large use, although on occasion they are sufficiently simple. The most dependable depend upon differences in the development of certain sounds in the North Teutonic and West Teutonic countries. One of the simplest to acknowledge is the development of the sound sk.
In Old English this was early palatalised tojh
( written Sc ) , except perchance in the combination scr,
whereas in the Norse states it retained its difficult sk
sound. Consequently, while native words like ship, shall, angle
hold sh
in Modern English, words borrowed from the Scandinavians are by and large still pro & # 173 ; nounced with sk: sky, tegument, accomplishment, scraping, chaparral, bask, whisk.
The O.E. ycyrlc
has become shirt,
while the corresponding O.N. signifier skyrla
gives us skirt.
In the same manner the keeping of the difficult pronunciation of K
and g in such words as child, dike1
( californium. ditch )
get, give, club, egg,
is an indicant of Norse beginning. Oc & # 173 ; casionally, though non really frequently, the vowel of a word gives clear cogent evidence of adoption. For illustration, the Teutonic diphthong Army Intelligence
became & # 226 ;
in Old English ( and has become & # 246 ; in modern English ) , but became ei
or e
in Old Scandinavian. Thus aye, nay
( beside no from the native word ) , whole
( californium. the English signifier ( tungsten ) lwle ) ,
caribou, boyfriend
are borrowed words, and many more illustrations can be found in Middle English and in the modern idioms. Therefore at that place existed in Middle English the signifiers geit, pace,
which are from Norse, beside rod,
g & # 246 ; T
from the O.E. word. The native word has survived in Modern English caprine animal.
In the same manner the Norse word for loathsome
existed in Middle Eng & # 173 ; lish as leip, laif )
beside Id } ) , loft.
Such trials as these, based on sound-developments in the two linguistic communications are the most dependable agencies of separating Norse from native words. But on occasion pregnant gives a reasonably dependable trial. Therefore our word bloom
( flower ) could come every bit good from O.E. blorna
or Scandinavian bl & # 246 ; m.
But the O.E. word meant an “ metal bar of Fe ‘ , whereas the Norse word meant ‘flower, bloom ‘ . It happens that the Old English word has survived as a term in metallurgy, but it is the Old Norse word that has come clown in ordinary usage. Again, if the initial g in gift
did non bewray the Norse beginning of this word, we should be justified in surmising it from the fact that the blood relation O.E. word gift
intend the ‘price of a married woman ‘ , and therefore in the plural ‘marriage, ‘ while the O.N. word had the more general sense of ‘gift, present ‘ . The word plough
in Old English meant a step of land, in Norse the agri & # 173 ; cultural implement, which in Old English was called a sulh.
When neither the signifier of a word nor its significance proves its Norse beginning we can ne’er be certain that we have to make with a borrowed word. The fact that an original has non been preserved in Old English is no cogent evidence that such an original did non be. However when a word appears in Middle English which can non be traced to an Old English beginning but for which an wholly satisfactory original exists in Old Norse, and when that word occurs chiefly in texts written in territories where Danish influence was strong, or when it has survived in dialectal usage in these territories today, the chance that we have here a borrowed word is reasonably strong. In every instance concluding judgement must rest upon a careful consideration of all the factors involved.

Chapter IV

Norse Place-names

.

Among the most noteworthy evi & # 173 ; dences of the extended Norse colony in England is the big figure of topographic points that bear Norse names. When we find more than six 100 topographic points like Grimsby, Whitby,
Derby, Rugby,
and Thorcsby,
with names stoping in -by,
about all of them in the territory occupied by the Danes, we have a strik & # 173 ; ing grounds of the figure of Danes who settled in England. For those names all contain the Danish word by,
intending ‘farm ‘ or ‘town ‘ , a word which is besides seen in our word by-law
( town jurisprudence ) . Some three hundred names like Althorp, Bishopsthorpe, Gaw-thorj ) C, Linthorpe
incorporate the Norse word thorp
( small town ) . An about equal figure contain the word thwaite
( an isolated piece of land ) & # 8212 ; Applcthwaite, Braithwaite, Cowpcrthwaite,
Langthwaite, Satlerthwalte.
About a 100 topographic points bear names stoping in toft
( a piece of land, a messuage ) & # 8212 ; Brimtoft, Eas-
toft, Langtoft, Loivestoft, Nortoft.
Numerous other Norse elements enter into English place-names, which need non be particularized here. It is evident that these elements entered closely in the address of the people of the Danelaw. It has been remarked above that more than 1400 Norse place-names have been counted in England, and the figure will doubtless be increased when a more careful study of the stuff has been made. These names are non uniformly distributed over the Danelaw. The largest figure are found in Yorkshire and Lin & # 173 ; colnshire. In some territories in these counties every bit many as 75 per cent of the place-names are of Norse beginning. Cumberland and Westmoreland contribute a big figure, reflecting the extended Norse colonies in the northwest, while Norfolk, with a reasonably big representation, shows that the Danes were legion in at least this portion of East Anglia. It may be remarked that a similar high per centum of Norse personal names has been found in the medieval records of these territories. Name callings stoping in boy, like Stevenson
or Johnson,
conform to a characteristic Scan dinavian usage, the tantamount Old English patronymic being -ng, as in Browning.

The Earliest Borrowing
.
The extent of this influence on English place-nomenclature would take us to anticipate a big infiltration of other words into the vocabulary. But we should non anticipate this infiltration to demo itself at one time. The early dealingss of the encroachers with the English were excessively hostile to take to much natural intercourse, and we must let clip for such words as the Anglo-saxons learned from their enemies to happen their manner into literature. The figure of Norse words that appear in Old English is accordingly little, amounting to merely approximately two mark. The largest individual group of these is such as would be as & # 173 ; sociated with a sea-roving and marauding people. Wordss like barda
( beaked ship ) , cnearr
( little war vessel ) , scegfi
( vas ) , lij & gt ;
( fleet ) , sccgpmann
( plagiarist ) , dreng
( warrior ) , hour angle
( peg ) and hd-sxta
( oarsman in a war vessel ) , bdtswegen
( boater ) , hofding
( head, ringleader ) , orrest
( conflict ) , ran
( robbery, rape ) , and fylcian
( to roll up or marshal a force ) show in what respects the encroachers chiefly impressed the English. A small cubic decimeter

ater we find a figure of words associating to the jurisprudence or feature of the societal and administrative system of the Danelaw. The word jurisprudence
itself is of Norse beginning, as is the word criminal. itself is of Norse beginning, as is the word criminal.
The word m & # 226 ; l The word mal
( action at jurisprudence ) , hold ( action at jurisprudence ) , hold
( freeholder ) , wapentake ( freeholder ) , wapentake
( an adminis & # 173 ; trative territory ) , h & # 252 ; biting ( an adminis­trative territory ) , husting
( assembly ) , and siting ( assembly ) , and siting
( originally thrid- ( originally thrid-
ing, ing,
one of the three divisions of Yorkshire ) owe their usage to the Danes. In add-on to these, a figure of echt Old English words seem to be interlingual renditions of Norse footings: B & # 246 ; tlcas one of the three divisions of Yorkshire ) owe their usage to the Danes. In add-on to these, a figure of echt Old English words seem to be interlingual renditions of Norse footings: botlcas
( what can non be compensated ) , hdmsocn ( what can non be compensated ) , hdmsocn
( assailing an enemy in his house ) , lahceap ( assailing an enemy in his house ) , lahceap
( payment for re-entry into lost legal rights ) , landceap ( payment for re-entry into lost legal rights ) , landceap
( revenue enhancement paid when land was bought ) are illustrations of such translations.1 ( revenue enhancement paid when land was bought ) are illustrations of such translations.1
English legal nomenclature underwent a complete reshaping after the Norman Conquest, and most of these words have been replaced now by footings from the Gallic. But their impermanent being in the linguistic communication is an grounds of the extent to which Scandinavian imposts entered into the life of the territories in which the Danes were legion. English legal nomenclature underwent a complete reshaping after the Norman Conquest, and most of these words have been replaced now by footings from the Gallic. But their impermanent being in the linguistic communication is an grounds of the extent to which Scandinavian imposts entered into the life of the territories in which the Danes were legion.

Norse Loan-words and Their Character
.
It was after the Danes had begun to settle down pacifically in the island and enter into the ordinary dealingss of life with the English that Norse words commenced to come in in Numberss into the linguistic communication. If we examine the majority of these words with a position to spliting them into categories and therefore detecting in what spheres of idea or see the Danes contributed particularly to Eng & # 173 ; lish civilization and therefore to the English linguistic communication, we shall non get at any important consequence. The Danish invasions were non like the debut of Christianity, conveying the English into contact with a different civilisation and presenting them to many things, physical every bit good as religious, that they had non known earlier. The civilisation of the encroachers was really much like that of the English themselves, if anything slightly inferior to it. Consequently the Norse elements that entered the English linguistic communication are such as would do their manner into it through the give and take of mundane life. Their character can outdo be conveyed by a few illustrations, arranged merely in alphabetical order. Among nouns that came in are axle-tree, set, bank, birth, blessing, booth,
threshold, bull, calf
( of leg ) , criminal, soil, down
( plumes ) , dregs, egg,
chap, lentigo, pace, spread, girth, conjecture, hap, keel, child, leg, nexus,
loan, quag, race, caribou, reef
( of canvas ) , rift, root, strikebreaker, graduated tables, mark, bit, scat, sister, accomplishment, tegument, skirt, sky, slaughter, trap,
stack, steak, boyfriend, thrift, newss, trust, want, window.
The list has been made slightly long in order the better to exemplify the varied and yet simple character of the adoptions. Among adjec & # 173 ; tives we find awkward, level,
I & # 220 ; ,
free, low, mild, steamy, uneven, decompose & # 173 ; ten, rugged, light, seemly, sly, tattered, tight,
and weak.
There is besides a surprising figure of common verbs among the borrow & # 173 ; ings, verbs like to tease, bask, secure, name, dramatis personae, cartridge holder, cow, crave,
crawl, dice, sag, egg ( on ) , flit, gape, pant, acquire, give, glister,
kindle, lift, Lug, scold, ransack, rise, rake, free, rive, panic, lookout
(
an thought ) , frown, shriek, rebuff, dash, take, thrive, push.
Lists such fledglings and that non a individual Briton was left alive. The evi & # 173 ; dence of the place-names in this part lends support to the statement. But this was likely an exceeding instance. In the E and sou’-east, where the Teutonic conquering was to the full accom & # 173 ; plished at a reasonably early day of the month, it is likely that there were fewer endurances of. a Gaelic population than elsewhere. Large Numberss of the defeated fled to the West. Here it is evident that a con & # 173 ; siderable Celtic-speaking population survived until reasonably late times. Some such state of affairs is suggested by a whole bunch of Gaelic place-names in the northeasterly corner of Dorsetshire.1
It is wholly likely that many Kelts were held as slaves by the vanquishers and that many of the Teutons married Gaelic adult females. In parts at least of the island, contact between the two races must hold been changeless and in some territories intimate for several coevalss.

Chapter V

Gaelic Place-names.

When we come, nevertheless, to seek the grounds for this contact in the English linguistic communication probe outputs really meagre consequences. Such grounds as there is survives chiefly in place-names. The land of Kent,
for illustration, owes its name to the Celtic word Canti
or Cantion,
the significance of which is unknown, while the two antediluvian Northumbrian lands of Deira
and Bernicia
deduce their appellations from Celtic tribal names. Other territories, particularly in the West and sou’-west, pre & # 173 ; service in their contemporary names hints of their earlier Gaelic appellations. Devonshire
contains in the first component the tribal name Dumnonii, Cornwall
means the ‘Cornubian Welsh ‘ , and Cumberland
is the ‘land of the Cymry or Britons ‘ . Furthermore, a figure of of import centres in the Roman period have names in which Gaelic elements are embodied. The name London
itself, al & # 173 ; though the beginning of the word is slightly unsure, most likely goes back to a Gaelic appellation. The first syllable of Winchester,
Salisbury, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Lichfield,
and a mark of other names of metropoliss is traceable to a Celtic beginning, while the earlier name of Canterbury ( Durovernum )
and the name fork
are originally Celtic. But it is in the names of rivers and hills and topographic points in propinquity to these natural characteristics that the greatest figure of Celtic names survives. Thus the Thames
is a Gaelic river name, and assorted Celtic words for river or H2O are pre & # 173 ; served in the names Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Dover,
and Wye.
Gaelic words intending ‘hill ‘ are found in place-names like Barr
( californium. Welsh saloon,
‘top, acme ‘ ) , Bredon
( californium. Welsh bre,
T & # 305 ; ilF ) , Bryn Mawr
( californium. Welsh bryn
liill ‘ and mawr
‘great ‘ ) , Creech, Pendle
( californium. Welsh pen
‘top ‘ ) , and others. Certain other Gaelic elements occur more or less often such as cumb
( a deep vale ) in names like Duncombe, Holcombe, Winchcombe ; millimeter of mercury
( high stone, extremum ) in Torr, Torcross, Torhill ; pill
(
a tidal brook ) in Pylle,
Huntspill ;
and brace
( Wisconsinite ) in Brockholes, Brockhall,
etc. Be & # 173 ; sides these strictly Gaelic elements a few Latin words such as castra,
fantana,
pit, portus,
and vicus
were used in appellative topographic points during the Roman business of the island and were passed on by the Celts to the English. These will be discussed subsequently. It is natural that Gaelic place-names should be commoner in the West than in the E and sou’-east, but the grounds of these names shows that the Celts impressed themselves upon the Teutonic con & # 173 ; sciousness at least to the extent of doing the fledglings to follow many of the local names current in Celtic address and to do them a lasting portion of their vocabulary.

Gaelic Loan-words.
Outside of place-names, Jiow-ever, the influence of Celtic upon the English linguistic communication J about negligible. Not over a mark of words in Old English can be traced with sensible chance to a Celtic beginning. Within this little figure it is possible to separate twogroups: ( 1 ) those which the Anglo-saxons learned through mundane contact with the indigens, and ( 2 ) those which were introduced by the Irish missionaries in the North. The former were transmitted orally and were of popular character ; the latter were connected with spiritual activities and were more or less learned. The popular words include binn
( basket, cot ) , bratt
( cloak ) , and brocc
as these suggest better than any account the familiar, every & # 173 ; twenty-four hours character of the words which the Norse invasions and subsequent colony brought into English.

The Relation of Borrowed and Native Words
.
It will be seen from the words in the above lists that in many instances the new words could hold supplied no existent demand in the English vocabulary. They made their manner into English merely as the consequence of the mixture of the two races. The Norse and the English words were being used side by side, and the endurance of one or the other must frequently hold been a affair of opportunity. Under such fortunes a figure of things might go on. Where words in the two linguistic communications coincided more or less in signifier and intending the modern word stands at the same clip for both its English and its Norse ascendants. Examples of such words are burn, cole, drag, fast, pack, fog ( Y ) , scraping, Ilick.
Where there were differences of signifier the English word frequently survived. Beside such English words as bench, caprine animal, pagan,
narration, few, gray, loath, spring, flay
matching Norse signifiers are found rather frequently in Middle English literature and in some instances still exist in dialectal usage. We find scrcdc, skcllc, skcrc
with the difficult pronunciation of the initial consonant group beside the standard English shred, shell, sheer, wae
beside suffering,
the lasting signifier except in welaway, Mgg
the Old Norse equivalent of O.E, treowe
( true ) . Again where the same thought was expressed by different words in the two linguistic communications it was frequently, as we should anticipate, the English word that lived on. We must retrieve that the country in which the two linguistic communications existed for a clip side by side was confined to the northern and eastern half of England. Examples are the Norse words attlen
beside English think
( in the sense of intent, intend ) , bolnen
beside crestless wave,
f work forces ( O.N. tyna )
beside lose, site
beside sorrow, roke
( fog ) beside mist, reike
beside way.
( 3 ) In other instances the Norse word replaced the native word, frequently after the two had long remained in usage at the same time. Our word awe
from Norse, and its blood relation oculus ( aye )
from Old English are both found in the Ormulum
( c. 1200 ) . In the earlier portion of the Middle English period the English word is commoner, but by 1300 the Norse signifier begins to look with increasing frequence, and eventually replaces the Old English word. The two signifiers must hold been current in the mundane address of the nor’-east for several centuries, until eventually the pronunciation awe
prevailed. The Old English signifier is non found after the 14th century. The same thing happened with the two words for egg, ey
( English ) and egg
( Norse ) . Caxton complains at the stopping point of the 15th century ( see the transition quoted below, p. 236 ) that it was hard even so to cognize which to utilize. In the words sister
( O.N. syster,
O.E. swcostor ) , blessing
( O.N. B & # 246 ; Ns, O.E. ben ) , loan
( O.N. Ian,
O.E. 10 ) , weak
( O.N. veikr,
O.E. television & # 226 ; degree Celsiuss )
the Norse signifier lived. Often a good Old English word was lost, since it expressed the same thought as the foreign word. Thus the verb take
replaced the O.E. niman ; 1
dramatis personae
superseded the O.E. weorpan,
while it has itself been mostly displaced now by throw ; cut
took the topographic point of O.E. tin & # 238 ; & # 214 ; an
and ceorfan.
Old English had several words for choler
( O.N. angr ) ,
including torn, gramma,
and irre,
but the Old Norse word prevailed. In the same manner the Norse word bark
replaced O.E. rind, flying
replaced O.E. jehra, sky
took the topographic point of iiprodor
and wolccn
( the latter now being preserved merely in the poetical word celestial sphere ) ,
and window
( =
wind-eye ) drove out the every bit appropriate English word eagjiyrcl
( eye-thirl, i.e. , eye-hole ; californium. anterior naris
=
nose thirl, nose hole ) . ( 4 ) Occasionally both the English and the Norse words were retained with a difference of significance or usage, as in the undermentioned brace ( the English word is given foremost ) : no & # 8212 ; nay, whole
& # 8212 ; Hale, rise up
& # 8212 ; raise, from
& # 8212 ; fro, trade
& # 8212 ; accomplishment, conceal
& # 8212 ; tegument, ill
& # 8212 ; ailment.
( 5 )
In certain instances a native word which was seemingly non in common usage was reinforced, if non reintroduced, from the Scandinavian. In this manner we must account for such words as boulder clay, dale, rim, blend, tally,
and the Scotch bairn.
( 6 ) Finally, the English word might be modified, taking on some of the character of the corresponding Norse word. Give
and acquire
with their difficult g are illustrations, as are scatter
beside shatter,
and Thursday
alternatively of the O.E. Thunresdseg.
Some confusion must hold existed in the Danish country between the Scandinavian and the English signifier of many words, a confusion that is clearly betrayed in the endurance of such intercrossed signifiers as scream
and shriek.
All this simply goes to demo that in the Norse influence on the English linguistic communication we have to make with the confidant mingling of two linguas. The consequences are merely what we should anticipate when two instead similar linguistic communications are spoken for upwards of two centuries in the same country.

Chapter VI

Form

Wordss.

If farther grounds were needed of the inti & # 173 ; copulate relation that existed between the two linguistic communications, it would be found in the fact that the Norse words that made their manner into English were non confined to nouns and adjectives and verbs, but extended to pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and even a portion of the verb to be.
Such parts of address are non frequently transferred from one linguistic communication to another. The pronouns they, their,
and them
are Norse. Old English used hie, hicra,
him
( see above, p. 68 ) . Possibly the Norse words were felt to be less capable to confusion with signifiers of the singular. Furthermore, though these are the most of import, they arc non the lone Norse pronouns to be found in English. A late Old English lettering contains the Old Norse signifier jambon & # 305 ; m
for him. Both
and same,
though non chiefly pronouns, have pronominal utilizations and are of Norse beginning. The preposition boulder clay
was at one clip widely used in the sense of to,
besides holding its present significance, and fro,
similarly in common usage once as the equivalent of from,
survives in the phrase to and fro.
Both words are from the Norse. From the same beginning comes the modern signifier of the concurrence though,
the Old Norse equivalent of O.E. heah.
The Norse usage of at
as a mark of the infinitive is to be seen in the English bustle ( at-do )
and was more widely used in this building in Middle English. The adverbs aloft,
athwart, aye
( of all time ) , and seemly,
and the earlier hehen
( hence ) and hwepen
( whence ) are all derived from the Scandinavian Finally the present plural are
of the verb to be
is a most important acceptance. While we aron
was the Old English signifier in the North, the West Saxon plural was syndon
( californium. German Sind )
and the signifier are
in Modern English doubtless owes its extension to the influence of the Danes. When we remember that in the look I they are
both the pronoun and the verb are Norse we/ recognize one time more how closely the linguistic communication of the encroachers has entered into English.

Norse

Influence outside the Standard Speech.
We should lose the full significance of the Norse influence if we failed to acknowledge the extent to which it is found outside the standard address. Our older literature and the modern idioms are full of words which are non now in ordinary usage. The laies offer many illustrations. When the Geste of Robin Hood
begins “ Lythe
and listin, gcntilmen ” it has for its first word an Old Norse syn & # 173 ; onym for listen.
When a little later on the Sheriff of Nottingham says to Little John “ Say me nowe, wight
yonge adult male, what is nowe thy name? ” he uses the O.N. vigt
( strong, brave ) . In the lay of Captain Car
the line “ Busk
and bowne,
my merry work forces all ” contains two words from the same beginning significance pre & # 173 ;
pare.
The word billfish,
intending to do
or do one bash something,
is of frequent happening. Therefore, in Chevy Chace
we are told of Douglas ‘ work forces that “ Many a doughete the ( Y ) garde
to dy ” & # 8212 ; i.e. , they made many a doughty adult male dice. In Robin Hood and Guy of
Gisborne
the Virgin Mary is addressed: “ Ah, deere Lady! sayd Robin Hoode, Thou art both female parent and may! ”
in which may
is a Norse signifier for & # 187 ; note/ . Bessie Bell and Mary Gray, in the lay of that name, “ bigget
a arbor on yon burn-brae ” , employ & # 173 ; ing in the procedure another word of Norse beginning, biggen
( to construct ) , a word besides used by Burns in To a Mouse:
“ Thy wee spot housie, excessively, in ruin! . . . And naething now to large a new ane. ” In Burns and Scott we find the comparative worse
in the signifier waur: “ A ”
the warld kens that they maun either marry or make waur ” ( Old Mortality ) ,
besides an old word ( O.N. verre )
more com & # 173 ; monly found in the signifier used by Chaucer in the Boofc of the Duchess:
“ Alias! how myghte I fare werre? ” Examples could be ( brock or Wisconsinite ) ; a group of words for geographical characteristics which had non played much portion in the experience of the Anglo-saxons in their Continental place & # 8212 ; crag, luh
( lake ) , cumb
( val & # 173 ; pasture ) , and torr1
( outcropping or projecting stone, extremum ) , the two latter chiefly as elements in place-names ; perchance the words dun
( dark colored ) , and buttocks
( finally from Latin asinus ) .
Wordss of the 2nd group, those that came into English through Celtic Christianity, are similarly few in figure. In 563 St. Columba hadcome with 12 monastics from Ireland to prophesy to his kinsmen in Britain. On the small island of lona off the west seashore of Scotland he established a monastery and made it his central office for the staying 34 old ages of his life. From this centre many missionaries went out, founded other spiritual houses, and did much to distribute Christian philosophy and acquisition. As a consequence of their activity the words ancor
( anchorite ) , dry
( prestidigitator ) , cine
( a assemblage of parchment foliages ) , cross, chtgge
( bell ) , gabolrind
( compass ) , head
( crown ) , and possibly stxr
( history ) and cur-
sian
( to cuss ) came into at least partial usage in Old English.

It does non look that many of these Celtic words attained a really lasting topographic point in the English linguistic communication. Some shortly died out and others acquired merely local currency. The relation of the two races was non such as to convey about any considerable in & # 173 ; fluence on English life or on English address. The lasting Celts were a submersed race. Had they, like the Romans, possessed a superior civilization, something valuable to give the Teutons, their influence might hold been greater. But the Anglo-Saxon found small juncture to follow Celtic manners of look and the Gaelic influence remains the least of the early influences which affected the English linguistic communication.

Historical background Historical background
The Vikings that traveled to western and Eastern Europe were basically from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They finally made it into Greenland and North America. The Vikings that traveled to western and Eastern Europe were basically from Denmark, Norway and Sweden. They finally made it into Greenland and North America.

It is believed that Denmark was mostly settled by Germanic people from contemporary Sweden in the fifth and 6th centuries. Their linguistic communication became the mother-tongue of contemporary Norse linguistic communications. By 800, a strong cardinal authorization appears to hold been established in Jutland and the Danes were get downing to look beyond their ain district for land, trade and loot.

Norway had been settled over many centuries by Germanic peoples from Denmark and Sweden who had established agriculture and fishing communities around its seashores and lakes. The cragged terrain and the fiords formed strong natural boundaries and the communities remained independent of each other, unlike the state of affairs in Denmark which is lowland. By 800, it is known that some 30 junior-grade lands existed in Norway.

The sea was the easiest manner of communicating between the Norse lands and the outside universe. It was in the 8th century that ships of war began to be built and sent on busting expeditions to originate the Viking Age, but the northern sea wanderers were bargainers, colonisers and adventurers every bit good as pillagers.

Prior to 1000, inside informations of Swedish events are vague. It is known that there were two folks in the state during Roman times: the Suiones ( Swedes ) in the north Svealand ; and the Gothones ( Goths ) , in the South ( hence called Gothia ) .

Decision

The importance of a linguistic communication is necessarily associated in the head of the universe with the political function played by the states utilizing it and their influence in international personal businesss ; with the assurance people feel in their fiscal place and the certainty with which they will run into their duties i.e. , pay their debts to other states, run into the involvement on their bonds, maintain the gold or other footing of their currency, command their outgos ; with the extent of their concern endeavor and the international range of their commercialism ; with the conditions of life under which the great mass of their people live ; and with the portion played by them in art and literature and music, in scientific discipline and innovation, in geographic expedition and find in short, with their part to the stuff and religious advancement of the universe. English is the female parent lingua of states whose combined political influence, economic soundness, com & # 173 ; mercial activity, societal wellbeing, and scientific and cultural parts to civilization give impressive support to its numerical precedency.

The English address is one of the important universe linguistic communications today in the universe, possibly taking the first topographic point by the figure of its talkers. It is a linguistic communication of Germanic groups of linguistic communications, spoken in United Kingdom, USA, A