1.The text offers various sources of (or reasons for) violence in the Middle East. Describe at least three. Which of the sources do you think is most responsible? Explain your answer. Also, given these sources, what do you think can and/or should be done to secure a lasting peace in the Middle East?

            Three reasons for violence in the Middle East are: religious belief, struggle for autonomy, and territorial dispute.  Religious belief causes conflict in the Middle East because there are some groups that would like to impose their interpretation of the Islamic law on other nations and other groups.  The Middle East states, being predominantly Islamic, do not separate the laws of the church and state.  Religious leaders interfere with governance, or they maybe the same people enforcing the rules of law.  Not only is politics based on religious laws but the military personnel are also under the belief that their god is on their side, giving them a biased assessment of other religions and nations (Walker, 2006).

            In its struggle for recognition as an autonomous region from Turkey, the Kurdistan region in Eastern Turkey has been the cause for dispute between the Kurds and the Turkish authorities.   The conflict has caused the loss of thousands of lives and destruction of many properties in the Kurdistan region.

            In the case of Israel and Palestine, these two nations’ conflict is the result of their claims on the same parcel of land.  The roots of the dispute can be traced in the 19th century in the contest between Arabs and Jews on who can claim ownership on the Palestine region.  The country was formerly controlled by the United Kingdom.  Both the Arabs and Jews were promised by Britain ownership of the country, and those promises are both recorded on two separate agreements.  The tension later turned into physical and violent riots that resulted to many deaths on both sides.

            Among these reasons, religious belief is the biggest cause for conflict because by not respecting other people’s beliefs, conflict has spread to many nations.  In order to secure a lasting peace in the Middle East, it is important for the people there too accept that their religion is flawed and that the world was made not just for them but for everyone else.

2.What is Hamas? Hezbollah? Islamic Jihad? What are the differences between them? Are these groups a threat to the United States? If so, how so? Under what circumstance, if any, should we negotiate with terror groups such as these?

            Hamas, an organization of the Palestinian Sunni Muslims, was created in 1987.  Its main goal is to destroy the Israeli State and put in its place the Palestinians’ own government.  As a political party, it holds majority of the seats in the Palestinian Authority’s legislative council.  This organization has engaged both in terroristic activities and social programs.  As a terrorist group, it conducted suicide bombings and other forms of attacks on Israelis.  It has become popular among Palestines because of its hospitals, schools, libraries, and other programs that would benefit its people.

            The Hezbollah, or the Party of God, had its origins in Iran during the country’s revolution.  Its primary purpose was to provide assistance to Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini’s forces and to spread Shi’ite Islam.  Hezbollah members attacked anyone who was critical of Ayatollah.  Their activities could be labeled terroristic.  These include suicide bombings and kidnappings.

            The Islamic Jihad mainly refers to the Palestinian Islamic Jihad and is classified as a terrorist group by countries like the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan (Levitt, 2002).  Its primary purpose is the destruction of Israel and putting into power a Palestinian government.  It began in the 1970s in Cairo, Egypt among Palestinian students.

            According to Levitt (2002), the Islamic Jihad and the Hezbollah are now considered as one terrorist group by the U.S. Department of State.  Comparing Islamic Jihad/Hezbollah with Hamas, their differences include: the former is a hard-core terrorist, while the latter uses both terrorism and legal means to pursue its goal of putting down Israel.  The Hamas is also involved in bettering the plight of its people by providing schools and hospitals.  Also, the Hamas and Islamic Jihad had different ideologies concerning Khomeinism.  Islamic Jihad supports Iranian Khomeinism while Hamas rejects it (Levitt, 2005).

            These groups are definitely threats to the United States because aside from Israel, these groups hate America and its influences in the region.  Extremist Muslims want to abolish every Western influence in the region, and America for them is their biggest enemy.  Also, the U.S. is friendly to Israel, making it a target for terroristic attacks.

            The only instance that the U.S. should negotiate with terrorists is when there are innocent lives at risk.  Meaning, if there is a way to save kidnapped victims or hostage victims, the government should explore them.

3.Describe the Kurdish conflict and the PKK in detail. Who are the peoples and nations with a stake in the conflict? What are the concerns or objections of all sides of the conflict? Do you believe that the Kurds are deserving of their own nation-state? Or is it simply a fact of life that Kurds will remain a minority in every country they occupy, whether, Turkey, or Iraq, or elsewhere? Feel free to consult and cite other sources in addition to the text as you compose your answer.

            Kurdistan is a region that covers parts of Northern Syria, Northwestern Iran, Eastern Turkey, and Northern Iraq.  As a people with its own distinct culture, the Kurds are basically different from its bordering countries.  Of all of Kurdistan, its claim on Iraq is the only region to have gained recognition as an autonomous and political entity.  But prior to that, Iraqi Kurdistan had its own share of bloodbath as a result of Saddam Hussein’s policy of erasing every single Kurd from Iraq.

            In Syria, the Kurds are the largest ethnic minority but most of them are not Syrian citizens, which means they cannot participate in the job market, marry Syrians or vote in elections.  There are many human rights violations against Kurds in Syria and they can’t immigrate to other countries because they are without a country.

            In 1920, the Treaty of Sevres stated that the Kurds can have their own sovereign state.  However, Turkey, which was led by Kemal Ataturk in 1923, rejected the treaty and the formation of the Kurdish state.  This was the beginning of the Turkish-Kurdish conflict (Federation of American Scientists).

            In Iran, the Kurds are a large minority and had their shares of struggles to become a separate and distinct state.  But the forces of the government have for the most part prevailed and kept the Kurds under Iran.  However, Sunni Islam, which is the Kurds’ religion, has been banned in Tehran.

            As a result of its struggles, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party was established in the 1970s to fight for independence and to turn Kurdistan into a socialist state (Haney, 1999).  The PKK is primarily a militant group that does not hesitate to kill, even civilians, in order to promote its objectives.  Because of this, it is labeled as a terrorist group by other nations.  At present, the PKK is very much active in Turkey and is considered one of the most active terror group in the country.

            I believe that Kurds have to be given their own nation-state because they want and believe that they are able to stand independently.  Since in most cases Kurds are treated unfairly, then, there’s no sense in keeping them in that oppressed state for long.

4.Discuss the rise of Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. What are bin Laden’s key issues? What attacks or attempted attacks have been linked to Al-Qaeda (include the years)? How should America’s go about combating bin Laden and Al-Qaeda? Or, if you prefer, should we make peace somehow with that organization?

            Osama bin Laden is a Saudi national who was borne to wealthy parents.  He grew up in the royal court of Saudi and was tutored by Mohammed Qutb, the brother of Sayyid Qutb, the Egyptian leader of the Muslim Brotherhood.  Because of this orientation, bin Laden grew up to dislike the ways of the West.  In his college years, he dropped out of school and became estranged with the royal family.  He then joined the Afghan-Soviet war and became a follower of Abdullah Azzam, an expert in Islamic law.  Because of their association, bin Laden’s dislike for the West grew.  This turned into hatred when U.S. forces were allowed to station in Saudi Arabia during and after the Desert Storm operation.  Also, bin Laden hated the fact that Muslims have been fighting other Muslims under the leadership of Western generals.

            Al Qaeda came into being after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in the late 1980s.  To counter what Azzam and his men believed to be the United States’ attempt to take majority control of the country, they sought to establish Al Qaeda.  But bin Laden and Ayman al Zawahiri, a mujahedeen leader, had other ideas for the formation of Al Qaeda.  Ayman became the brains of the organization while bin Laden became its figurehead, owing to his charisma and popularity with the fighters.  Over time, Al Qaeda became strong and Azzam was eliminated, giving Ayman and bin Laden undisputed control of the organization.  Al Qaeda operates on Qutb’s ideologies  that the West is their enemy and anyone who rejects their ways.  Their goal is the establishment of an Islamic Caliphate all over the world and to destroy non-Muslim regimes (Pike, 2006).

            Attacks linked to the Al Qaeda are:

l  car bombing in residential places in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on May 12, 2003

l  allegedly behind the suicide attacks against Western facilities in Casablanca, Morocco in May 2003

l  car bombing and an attempted shooting down of an Israeli plane using missiles in Mombasa, Kenya, in November 2002

l  attacking a tanker belonging to France in Yemen in October 2002

l  allegedly behind the Bali, Indonesia bombing on October 12, 2002

l  bombings in Pakistan in 2002

l  Tunisia, April 2002, the group has allegedly caused a fuel tanker to explode outside a synagogue

l  hijacking U.S. airliners, killing thousands of civilians, bombing of the World Trade Center and Pentagon, all on September 11, 2001

l  bombing of the U.S. Cole on October 12, 2000 in Aden, Yemen

l  bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania on August 7, 1998

l  allegedly behind the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993

l  allegedly behind attacks against Americans in Saudi Arabia in 1995 and 1996

            The United States should intensify its effort to combat the terrorist activities of Al Qaeda.  It should employ its best agents to locate the bases of these people.  Training camps should be wiped out and terrorist leaders should be executed in public.  The U.S. and the governments of the Middle East should explore every means in order to flush out bin Laden and other Al Qaeda leaders.  More importantly, the West has to educate the people in remote places in the Middle East to combat the brainwashing activities of Al Qaeda.  Osama and his group capitalizes on ignorance.  By making education spread, the people will not be easily fooled into a fighting that mainly targets Americans.

            The country should not make peace with a group responsible for the deaths of so many civilians and military personnel and the destruction of buildings and other infrastructure.  Al Qaeda does not merit leniency.  It must be destroyed.

5.As you consider everything you have learned about international terrorism, in your opinion what are the most important facts or elements of the material that can be instructive for American foreign policy or counterterrorism efforts? Is there anything you have learned or have come to believe (about threats, opportunities, etc) through this course which you sense is not taken seriously enough or even considered by government officials? What would characterize your approach to terrorism if you were in a position to advise the President or other high-ranking government officials?

            In my opinion, the most important facts that would be useful for American foreign policy is the understanding of the conflicts in the Middle East, the peoples’ cultural differences and their religious ideologies.  Most of the terrorist groups are under the misguided notion that killing Americans and other Westerners is the solution to the woes of the Islamic states.  Most of these people have been raised to hate anything foreign.  Foreign policy should include how America can help in educating the Islamic nations to better understand the ways of the West.

            Among the things that I have learned, I believe education for the remote villages has not been given a serious consideration by government officials.  It may seem like a huge task, but there is always a way to spread Western ideas.  The Spaniards were able to spread Christianity, I believe America is capable of educating Muslims to protect them from exploitation by terrorist groups.  Education will also help these people respect the different beliefs held by other races.  Also, educational materials in Muslim schools in the United States should also be screened and any text that are against other religions should be removed.

            If I were in a position to advise the president, my approach would be based on culture and ideologies.  Fighting arms for arms will take its toll on many lives and resources.  Since the terrorists are misguided, then, my strategy would be aimed at correcting their misconceptions.  Eliminate the persons who are exploiting ignorance to promote terror, and save those who can still be saved.  Members of small Muslim communities are easily persuaded with false promises of financial gain and a place in heaven.  These people have to be empowered and it can only happen if they are exposed to more knowledge and the ways of the world.

References

Federation of American Scientists. (2008) The Kurds in Turkey. Retrieved August 16, 2008, from

            http://www.fas.org/asmp/profiles/turkey_background_kurds.htm

Haney, E. (1999, March 2). Understanding the Turkey-Kurd Conflict.  Infoplease Home Page.    Retrieved August 16, 2008, from http://www.infoplease.com/spot/kurds1.html

Levitt, M. (2002).  Sponsoring Terrorism: Syria and Islamic Jihad.  Middle East Intelligence         Bulletin.  Retrieved August 16, 2008, from http://www.meib.org/articles/0211_s1.htm

Levitt, M. (2005). Hamas and Islamic Jihad Clash over ‘Media Jihad.’ The Washington Institute   for Near East Policy.  Retrieved August 16, 2008, from      http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC06.php?CID=768

Pike, J. (2006, August 15). Al-Qaida / Al-Qaeda (the Base). GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved           August 16, 2008, from  http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/al-qaida.htm

Walker, J.  (2006, November 25).  Religious Belief and Violence in the Middle East.        NoBeliefs.com Home Page.  Retrieved August 16, 2008, from

            http://www.nobeliefs.com/religiouswars.htm

White, J.  (2006).  Terrorism and Homeland Security: An Introduction, 5th Edition.

            Wadsworth Publishing.

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